An exploratory look at the network structures of minority business owners: a comparative analysis across gender lines.ABSTRACT The current study analyzes the network structures of minority business owners by providing a comparative analysis of male versus female minority business owners. The paper is thus significant in three basic respects. First, it analyzes minority business owners, an often-ignored area of research. Second, it provides a comparative analysis of male minority versus female minority business owners, seeking to rectify rec·ti·fy v. 1. To set right; correct. 2. To refine or purify, especially by distillation. the lack of studies that present such an emphasis. Third, it looks at the network structures of minority business owners, an area which is rarely analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. , providing answers that cannot be found by looking at the United State Census Data. The results show that network structures of minority business owners are primarily the same across the gender samples and that issues that affect the business owners based on their race (which is similar in this case) are more prominent than issues that impact gender. 1. INTRODUCTION A look at the current literature indicates a recent resurgence re·sur·gence n. 1. A continuing after interruption; a renewal. 2. A restoration to use, acceptance, activity, or vigor; a revival. in the number of studies being done on entrepreneurship and its two related areas--business ownership and self-employment (Robinson-Jacobs, 2002; Sounderup, 2002; Terry-Azios, 1999; Marger, 2001). Previous researches in these three areas while gallant have failed to provide a complete picture on the various groups represented in the areas of entrepreneurship, business ownership or self-employment. Of particular concern is research done on minority business owners that continues to lag behind research pursued on white female and male business owners (Fairlie, 1999; Fairlie, 1988; Light and Rosenstein, 1995; Ong, 1981; Woodson, 1988). The current study seeks to rectify this dilemma by analyzing the network structures of minority business owners. It also goes a step further by providing a comparative analysis of male versus female minority business owners. The current paper is thus significant in three basic respects. First, it analyzes minority business owners, an often-ignored area of research. Second, it provides a comparative analysis of male minority versus female minority business owners, seeking to rectify the lack of studies that present such an emphasis. Third, it looks at the network structures of minority business owners, an area which is rarely analyzed, providing answers that can not be found by looking at the United State Census Data. Before presenting the network structure hypotheses that were explored, the paper provides an extensive look at key definitions and the literature review that exists as related to minority business owners. 2. DEFINITIONS A network structure is defined as the time spent building and maintaining business and social contacts (Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody, 2000; Krackhardt and Kilduff, 2002). The area of network structures encompasses and is related to the definition of social capital, which is simply defined as people's ability to work together with others (Fukuyana, 2002). The preceding definitions highlight the need to look at business owners' ties to organizations, other business owners, family, friends and other individuals or organizations that assist in the operation of one's business (Figure 1). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] 3. LITERATURE REVIEW While the literature on minority business owners remains sparse sparse - A sparse matrix (or vector, or array) is one in which most of the elements are zero. If storage space is more important than access speed, it may be preferable to store a sparse matrix as a list of (index, value) pairs or use some kind of hash scheme or associative memory. when compared to non-minority business owners, research in the last decade has managed to present a clearer picture of the minority business owner. The minority groups referred to in this case are African Americans African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans This page is a list of Asian Americans. Politics
American educator and writer best known for her poem "America the Beautiful," written in 1893 and revised in 1904 and 1911. (1989). The study by Bates (1989) compares the performance of small businesses formed by Asians, Blacks and non-minority males. Bates (1989) concluded that black owned businesses were more likely than their counterparts to have weak internal markets, experience commercial bank redlining Identifying text that has been changed in a word processing document by displaying it in a special color, for example. It allows the original author of the text or other users to see ongoing revisions. The term comes from manual editing where a red pen is used to mark up the pages. and lack the necessary entrepreneurial skills needed to operate a business. In a similar study by Boyd (1990), a comparison was made between self-employed Blacks and Asians. Boyd (1990) concluded that Asians performed more successfully as business owners because of unpaid family labor, their social networks, and their easier access to financial capital (Boyd, 1990). Scott in his 1983 article analyzed data on minority and non-minority firms. He concluded that minority-owned firms which do not receive assistance from the Minority Business Development Agency (MBDA MBDA Minority Business Development Agency (US Department of Commerce) MBDA Michigan Broadband Development Authority MBDA Minnesota Band Directors Association MBDA Matra BAE Dynamics Alenia MBDA Magnolia Ballroom Dancers' Association ) were found to have virtually the same performance characteristics as non-minority firms with regard to profitability, indebtedness INDEBTEDNESS. The state, of being in debt, without regard to the ability or inability of the party to pay the same. See 1 Story, Eq. 343; 2 Hill. Ab. 421. 2. , and liquidity (Scott, 1983). In addition, the author found that with minor exceptions, minority firms were no less liquid, and no more in debt than their non-minority counterparts (Scott, 1983). Other comparative analyses between minorities and other non-minority racial groups have heralded the disadvantaged This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details. This article has been tagged since September 2007. positions of minority business owners compared to their counterparts (Russell, 1981; Owsley, 1994; O'Hare and Suggs, 1986). Tang tang, in zoology tang: see butterfly fish. (1995) in comparing Asian and Black scientists and engineers, concluded that Blacks were less likely to enter business ownership, because of the more favorable fa·vor·a·ble adj. 1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds. 2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis. 3. returns they could obtain in the labor market labor market A place where labor is exchanged for wages; an LM is defined by geography, education and technical expertise, occupation, licensure or certification requirements, and job experience . Bates (1991) concluded that black owned businesses were less successful in part because of their difficulties in obtaining commercial bank financing. Sullivan and McCracken (1988) indicated that while Blacks started businesses at approximately proportionate pro·por·tion·ate adj. Being in due proportion; proportional. tr.v. pro·por·tion·at·ed, pro·por·tion·at·ing, pro·por·tion·ates To make proportionate. rates to Whites, the former group had disproportionately dis·pro·por·tion·ate adj. Out of proportion, as in size, shape, or amount. dis  pro·por higher attrition rates Noun 1. attrition rate - the rate of shrinkage in size or numberrate of attrition rate - a magnitude or frequency relative to a time unit; "they traveled at a rate of 55 miles per hour"; "the rate of change was faster than expected" , especially among black women. A number of studies have assessed the financial dimensions of a business as related specifically to minority businesses (Bowser Bowser may mean:
The authors concluded that minority business owners placed a relatively high reliance on equity, to finance initial operations (Van Auken and Horton, 1994). The study also indicates that the primary source of start-up equity was personal savings, while SBA SBA abbr. Small Business Administration Noun 1. SBA - an independent agency of the United States government that protects the interests of small businesses and ensures that they receive a fair share of government (Small Business Administration) guaranteed loans and loans from lending institutions Noun 1. lending institution - a financial institution that makes loans financial institution, financial organisation, financial organization - an institution (public or private) that collects funds (from the public or other institutions) and invests them in were the primary source of initial debt financing Debt Financing When a firm raises money for working capital or capital expenditures by selling bonds, bills, or notes to individual and/or institutional investors. In return for lending the money, the individuals or institutions become creditors and receive a promise to repay (Van Auken and Horton, 1994). Bates and Osborne (1979) lament the fate of minority business owners who obtain SBA loans. The authors contend that less solvent solvent, constituent of a solution that acts as a dissolving agent. In solutions of solids or gases in a liquid, the liquid is the solvent. In all other solutions (i.e. minority firms tend to qualify for larger loans, than their white counterparts (Bates and Osborne, 1979). The authors also point out that this preferential pref·er·en·tial adj. 1. Of, relating to, or giving advantage or preference: preferential treatment. 2. treatment to less qualified small business owners has led to a disproportionate dis·pro·por·tion·ate adj. Out of proportion, as in size, shape, or amount. dis pro·por amount of minority small business owners
defaulting on their loans (Bates and Osborne, 1979).The three previously mentioned studies were conducted in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . However, their general findings--that minority business owners are at a disadvantage financially--were echoed by similar studies conducted in the United Kingdom (Wilson and Stanworth, 1987; Wilson, 1984) and the United States (Christopher, 1998; Simone, 2002). One of the most recent articles to look at the network structure or social capital of business owners was published by Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody (2000). Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody (2000) define social capital as the relationship characteristics of a person's ties to others that may provide access to important resources. The authors performed a comparative analysis of the network structures or social capital of male and female business owners. Two aspects of the participants' social capital were analyzed: the extent to which they contain a high proportion of kin and the extent to which their business discussion networks are heterogeneous. Both hypotheses for the study were confirmed. The first hypothesis found that network heterogeneity het·er·o·ge·ne·i·ty n. The quality or state of being heterogeneous. heterogeneity the state of being heterogeneous. significantly increased the odds of starting a business, net of intentions, demographic variable and other characteristics (Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody, 2000). The second hypothesis found that the greater the proportion of kin in respondents' networks, the less likely they were to start a new business between the phases of study (Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody, 2000). The authors concluded that not only is a network structure important to a business owner, but a network structure that has dissimilar ties remains important to a business owner, regardless of gender (Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody, 2000). The importance of network structures to the success of businesses for business owners in general and minority business owners in particular is also echoed by others (Marger, 2001; Beech beech, common name for the Fagaceae, a family of trees and shrubs mainly of temperate and subtropical regions in the Northern Hemisphere. The principal genera—Castanea (chestnut and chinquapin), Fagus (beech), and Quercus , 1997; Fairlie, 1999; Weiler and Bernasek, 2001; Mazumdar, Mazumdar, Docuyanan and McLaughlin, 2000; Feagin and Imani, 1994). Fratoe (1988) was one of the few researchers to look exclusively at the social capital of black business owners. The author concluded that black business owners experienced less social capital, they were less likely to be exposed to entrepreneurial role models, be able to obtain loans from family members or be able to use family members as unpaid labor (Fratoe, 1988). 4. DATA AND MEASURES The business owners participating in the current study are concentrated in the personal services personal services n. in contract law, the talents of a person which are unusual, special or unique and cannot be performed exactly the same by another. These can include the talents of an artist, an actor, a writer, or professional services. industry and were selected from the Chambers of Commerce and the New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of State Directory of Minority Business Owners in four Upstate New York Upstate New York is the region of New York State north of the core of the New York metropolitan area. It has a population of 7,121,911 out of New York State's total 18,976,457. Were it an independent state, it would be ranked 13th by population. counties. A total of 144 participants were originally contacted, 68 agreed to participate and 60 eventually participated in face-to-face interviews--30 minority female business owners and 30 minority male business owners. Minority as defined here refers to African American and Hispanic American business owners. The personal services industry was examined because it is the industry in which most minority business owners are concentrated (Boyd, 1998; Lee, 1999). For this study, small business owners were defined as businesses with average sales or income that is less than or equal to $500,000. All measures are taken from the Upstate New York Small Business Owner Survey (1998) compiled by Dr. Karyn Loscoco. 5. RESULTS: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE Tables 1, 2 and 3 provide a summary of the characteristics of the two samples. The main categories include business categories in sample, human and financial capital characteristics and the types of businesses. The results on the summary characteristics of the sample indicate that the women in this sample are older, have higher educational levels, lower marriage rates and earn less than their male counterparts. Such findings reinforce those from other research studies (Devine, 1994; Cromie, 1987; Fabowale, Orser and Riding, 1995; Hundley, 2001; Hundley, 2000; Fagenson, 1993). 6. HYPOTHESES TESTING AND CHI-SQUARE RESULTS Based on the in-depth literature review done in a previous section of this paper. The following five hypotheses were proposed. It is expected based on previous research studies that men are more like y to receive assistance from their network structures when compared to their female counterparts (Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody, 2000). The hypotheses detail the connection of business owners to other players in their network structure (Figure 1). Hypothesis 1: Minority male business owners are more likely to receive assistance from family when compared to their female counterparts. Hypothesis 2: Minority male business owners are more likely to receive assistance from friends when compared to their female counterparts. Hypothesis 3: Minority male business owners are more likely to receive assistance from organizations when compared to their female counterparts. Hypothesis 4: Minority male business owners are more likely to have family members who are business owners when compared to their female counterparts. Hypothesis 5: Minority male business owners are more likely to have friends who are business owners when compared to their female counterparts. As indicated by the chi-square calculations and pa values at the end of each table, the results were not statistically significant, implying that there are no significant differences in the network structures of minority business owners across gender lines. All hypotheses are thus rejected. 7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION All five hypotheses were rejected, however that in and of itself is significant. What the results show is that network structures of minority business owners are primarily the same between these two samples and that issues that affect the business owners based on their race (which is similar in this case) are more prominent than issues that impact gender. These results differ from those of Renzulli, Aldrich and Moody (2000) who indicated that the network structures of male business owners indeed differed from that of female business owners. Their arguments however, were not based on an exclusive minority sample. Future research could concentrate on the network structures of minority versus white business owners, since Fairlie (1999) highlights race as a key factor in differing network structures. In a similar vein, future research could delve into the network structures of minority women versus white women business owners--an area that is rarely studied in the field of entrepreneurship. Although the sample process garnered participation, it also offered certain biases. These include interviewing only willing participants--thus affording a non-response bias, interviewing participants that are members of the Chambers of Commerce and the New York State Association of Minority Business Owners and limiting the research participants to only four counties in the Upstate New York area (Bailey, 1994). The method of data collection does however have certain key strengths that cannot be overlooked. First, the data allows an exploration of certain issues such as network structures that cannot be examined with data from other sources such as the United States Census The United States Census is a decennial census mandated by the United States Constitution.[1] The population is enumerated every 10 years and the results are used to allocate Congressional seats ("congressional apportionment"), electoral votes, and government program Data. Second, by using this targeted sampling method from the Chamber of Commerce and the New York State Association of Minority Business Owners, there is an increased chance of actually contacting businesses that are in current operation. Other data sources, if not current, might have listed businesses that are no longer in operation. Third, by contacting this targeted sample via the use of the New York State Directory of Minority Business Owners, there is an increased chance of obtaining minority business owners, which is less likely to occur if random sampling is used. In spite of in opposition to all efforts of; in defiance or contempt of; notwithstanding. See also: Spite the results, two key issues are illuminated il·lu·mi·nate v. il·lu·mi·nat·ed, il·lu·mi·nat·ing, il·lu·mi·nates v.tr. 1. To provide or brighten with light. 2. To decorate or hang with lights. 3. by the current study. First, in spite of the lack of statistically significant differences in network structures across gender lines for minorities, building a substantial network structure remains a critical issue for all minorities (Beech, 1997). Second, larger studies are needed that assess the network structures of minority business owners across gender lines.
TABLE 1
BUSINESS CATEGORIES OF SAMPLES
Type of
Business Men Women
Beauty Salon 2 13
(6.67%) (43.33%)
Funeral Home 3 --
(10.00%)
Massage 2 1
Therapist (6.67%) (3.33%)
Cleaners 1 4
(3.33%) (13.33%)
Photography 3 1
(10.00%) (3.33%)
Tax Preparation 9 6
Service (30.00%) (20.00%)
Formal Wear -- -- 1
Rental (3.33%)
Skin Treatment -- 3
(10.00%)
Barber Shop 10 --
(33.00%)
Fitness -- 1
Programs (3.33%)
TOTAL 30 30
TABLE 2
SUMMARY CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLES
Characteristics Men Women
Average Age of Business
Owners 42.7 years 46.6 years
College Experience 50% 63%
Marriage Rates 73% 53%
Average Number of
Employees in Business 6.14 1.63
Length of Time in Business 9.3 years 8.4 years
Average Gross Earnings of
Business $120,250 $53,333
Average Net Income of
Business $61,500 $23,500
Average Start-Up Capital $18,500 $7,250
Average Personal Income
of Business Owners $49,500 $23,000
TABLE 3
TYPE OF BUSINESSES
Type of Type of
Business Business
Type of Ownership Ownership
Business (Men) (Women)
Sole 60.00% 63.33%
Proprietorship
Partnership 30.00% 20.00%
Corporation 10.00% 16.67%
TABLE 4
RECEIVED ASSISTANCE FROM FAMILY
Percentage Percentage
of Help of Help
Received Received Received
Assistance (Men) (Women)
Yes 20 (66.67%) 22 (73.33%)
No 10 (33.33%) 8 (26.67%)
Chi-square value = 0.316, p value = 0.60
TABLE 5
RECEIVED ASSISTANCE FROM FRIENDS
Percentage Percentage
of Help of Help
Received Received Received
Assistance (Men) (Women)
Yes 20 (66.67%) 19 (63.33%)
No 10 (33.33%) 11 (36.67%)
Chi-square value = 0.048, p value = 0.85
TABLE 6
RECEIVED ASSISTANCE FROM ORGANIZATIONS
Percentage Percentage
of Help of Help
Received Received Received
Assistance (Men) (Women)
Yes 10 (33.33%) 8 (26.67%)
No 20 (66.67%) 22 (73.33%)
Chi-square value = 0.316, p value = 0.60
TABLE 7
FAMILY, BUSINESS OWNERS
Family, Business
Owners Men Women
Yes 13 22
(43.33%) (73.33%)
No 17 8
(56.67%) (26.67%)
Chi-square value = 1.8, p value = 0.15
TABLE 8
FRIENDS, BUSINESS OWNERS
Friends, Business
Owners Men Women
Yes 21 25
(70.00%) (83.33%)
No 9 5
(30.00%) (16.67%)
Chi-square = 0.78, p value = 0.60
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Wilson, P. and Stanworth, J., The social and economic factors in the development of small black minority firms: Asian and Afro- Caribbean business in Brent 1982 and 1984. Chapter 4 in Small Business Development: Some Current Issues. Edited by K. O'Neill, R. Bhambri, T. Faulkner and T. Cannon. Gower Publishing Company Limited, England, 1987. Wilson, P., Black business in Britain: A survey of Afro-Caribbean businesses in Brent. Chapter 6 in Success and Failure in Small Business. Edited by J. Lewis, J. Stanworth and A. Gibb. Gower Publishing Company Limited, England, 1984. Woodson, R., Black America's legacy of entrepreneurship. National Journal of Sociology, 1988, 204-224. Dr. Andrea E. Smith-Hunter earned her Ph.D. at the University at Albany, State University of New York (body) State University of New York - (SUNY) The public university system of New York State, USA, with campuses throughout the state. in 2000. She is currently an assistant professor at Siena College, New York. |
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