An ethnobotanical survey and pharmacological evaluation of medicinal plants used by the Garo tribal community living in Netrakona district, Bangladesh.IntroductionThroughout history plants have been used by human beings for medicinal purposes and even in modern times have formed the basis of many pharmaceuticals in use (Schmidt, et al, 2008). Plants produce a vast array of secondary metabolites as defense against environmental stress or other factors like pest attacks, wounds, and injuries. The complex secondary metabolites produced by plants have found various therapeutic uses in medicine from time immemorial. The early history of modern medicine contains descriptions of plant-derived phytochemicals, many of which are still in use. Some examples are the discovery of cardiotonics in foxglove, salicylic acid in willow bark, and morphine in poppies (Rishton, 2008). Various terpenoid compounds, which are synthesized in plants as secondary metabolites are proving their potential in modern scientific studies against inflammatory diseases and cancer (Salminen, 2008). A recent review has shown that approximately 25% of modern medications have been plant derived, while 75% of new drugs against infectious diseases that have arrived between 1981 and 2002 originated from natural sources (Bedoya, et al, 2009). Herbs and spices have been used from ancient times not only to increase palatability in foods but also for their health beneficial effects. Scientific studies have demonstrated the anti-oxidative potential of many herbs and spices, which is important since oxidative damages have been implicated in major diseases like atherosclerosis, arthritis, and diabetes. The cholesterol-lowering effect of garlic, use of ginger in ameliorating arthritic knee pain, and the effect of several herbal supplements on psychological and cognitive function has been reviewed by Tapsell et al (2006). Despite the progresses in modern medicine, it has been reported that more than 70% of the developing world's population still depends on complementary and alternative systems of medicine, otherwise known as traditional medicine (Shaikh, 2005). The advent of allopathic medicine shifted scientific and general population interest from traditional medicinal preparations. However, in recent years, a major paradigm shift has taken place. Interest has refocused on traditional medicine, because of the high cost of modern drugs, time and expenditure that is necessary to bring a drug to market after appropriate clinical trials, serious side-effects of a number of modern drugs, and drug-resistance developing in both microorganisms and parasites. As a result, scientists are now taking an active interest in traditional medicinal preparations of indigenous peoples, which mostly are plantbased. One example is the renewed interest in anti-inflammatory traditional medications. Inflammatory diseases are common in the aging society of developed and developing countries; yet, the drugs used to combat inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis often have serious side-effects. Several leads from plant sources, like curcumin, resveratrol, baicalein, boswellic acid, betulinic acid, ursolic acid, and oleanolic acid are now studied as possible drugs for the future against inflammatory diseases (Gautam, 2009). Edible plant extracts have shown promising anti-tumorigenic activity (Amara, et al, 2008). Anti-cancer agents from plant sources currently being used or undergoing clinical trials include vinblastine, vincristine, nevelbine, etoposide, teniposide, taxol, taxotere, topotecan, and irinotecan (Wang, 1998). A large number of traditional medicinal preparations used in various countries of the world have shown promise as treatment for herpes virus infections, which cannot be completely cured by the available anti-herpes drugs like nucleoside analogs (Chattopadhyay, 2008). The various ailments for which searches are going on in plants for newer drugs are too numerous to mention; to cite just a few examples, new plant-derived compounds are being searched for treatment of malaria because of the increasing resistance of Plasmodium falciparum against currently available anti-malarial drugs (Batista, et al, 2009; Kihampa, et al, 2009), searches for anti-fungal, molluscicidal and larvicidal compounds in African medicinal plants has been reviewed by Marston et al (1993), anti-leishmanial activity in Israeli plants has been reviewed by El-On et al (2009), and anti-trypanosomal and cytotoxic activities of pyrrolizidine alkaloid-producing plants of Ethiopia has been reported by Nibret et al (2009). Since indigenous peoples have a long history and expertise in the use of medicinal plants, it is important that their plant usage be documented as the basis for development of lead compounds before this knowledge is lost due to the influences of modern civilization. Bangladesh has a number of indigenous people or tribes, including the Chakmas, Garos, Santals, Marmas, Oraon, Mrus, Rakhains, Tripuras and others. We have previously conducted ethnobotanical surveys among the Rakhains and Tripura tribes residing in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region, the Santals residing in Rajshahi district, and the Garo tribal community inhabiting the Madhupur forest region (Tangail district) of Bangladesh (Hanif, et al, 2009; Hossan, et al, 2009; Shahidullah, et al, 2009; Mia, et al, 2009). The Garos (once a nomadic tribe of the Bodo group of Mongoloids) are a large tribal community spread among the north-central districts of the country like Mymensingh, Netrakona, Gazipur, Sherpur and Tangail. A number of Garos have recently adopted Christianity; however, they still basically follow their own religion with its associated customs and rituals. They have their own traditional medicinal practitioners, known as khamals or kamals, who besides practicing medicine, also conducts vows and arranges festivals. The khamals possess considerable expertise on medicinal plants, which is learnt through teachers or "gurus", family members, and trials on patients. This knowledge is usually confined to the family and passed on from generation to generation. Because the Garo communities lack any alphabet and because they are spread-out among the different districts, the traditional uses of medicinal plants for treatment of various ailments differ among the khamals of different districts. The objective of this present study was to conduct an ethnobotanical survey among the khamals of the Garo community living in Netrakona district, Bangladesh to document their medicinal plant usage and to compare their use of medicinal plants with that of the Garo community living in the Madhupur forest region of the country. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area Netrakona district in Bangladesh is situated roughly between 90[degrees]30-91[degrees]15 E and 24[degrees]35- 25[degrees]15 N. The district is comprised of several sub-districts. The present survey was conducted among the khamals of Garo communities living in the villages of Ranikong, Madhavpur and Bipinganj, all villages being situated within Durgapur sub-district. 2.2. Data collection and sampling techniques A total of five khamals were interviewed in the present survey. They were all males and named Raja, Xavier, Sentu, Semintas, and Badsha. Among them Xavier has adopted Christianity and regularly goes to a church located between Madhavpur and Bipinganj villages, where he has picked up acquaintances with the church doctor (a modern allopathic doctor). Xavier, however, practices the traditional system of Garo medicine (including diagnosis and treatment of ailments), which he has picked up from his family. Nevertheless, he has picked up a few medical terms like cancer and diabetes from the allopathic doctor. However, his diagnosis and choice of medicinal plants for treatment of the above two diseases did not differ from the other khamals, who diagnose diabetes and cancer, respectively, by the sweetness of urine, and by the presence of symptoms like weakness, loss of appetite, fever, itches that do not heal, or swellings, and which cannot be attributed to any of their known ailments. It needs to be pointed out in this respect, that diabetes is a known ailment of the khamals who refer to it as "chini-rogh", "chini" standing for sugar and "rogh" standing for disease. Cancer is a modern term picked up by the khamals, who do not understand it properly and attributed it to unexplained symptoms as described earlier. Informed consent was obtained from the healers prior to the survey. The purpose of the survey was explained to them in details and they were told that the survey had no other intentions apart from documentation of their medicinal plant usage. The survey was conducted with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire. Interviews were conducted in the Bangla language, all healers being fluent in the language spoken by over 95% of the Bangladesh population. The local names of the medicinal plants, however, were given in the Habeng language spoken by the Garos and which was found to have similarities to the Bangla language. The basic survey method was that of the guided field-walk method as described by Martin (1995) and Maundu (1995). In this method, the khamals took the interviewers to the areas from where they collected their medicinal plants and gave information as to plant name, plant parts used and ailments treated. All information was cross-checked with the khamals in later evening sessions. Plant specimens were collected and dried on site and brought back to the Bangladesh National Herbarium for identification, where voucher specimens were also deposited. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Plants and their distribution into families The result of the present survey shows that the khamals of the Garo community of Netrakona district used 74 plants distributed into 45 families for treatment of various ailments (Table 1). The Fabaceae family contributed the largest number of species (eight). Other families contributing more than one plant per family included the Araceae, Asteraceae, Moraceae, Solanaceae and Verbenaceae families (three plants per family), and the Acanthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Poaceae, Rutaceae and Zingiberaceae families (two plants per family). Some plants were not obtained from the wild. Among plants cultivated for both home consumption and commercial purposes were Mangifera indica (mango), Areca catechu (betel nut), Borassus flabellifer (sugar palm), Cocos nucifera (coconut), Ananas comosus (pineapple), Carica papaya (papaya), Luffa cylindrica (vegetable sponge), Emblica officinalis (Indian gooseberry), Manihot esculenta (cassava), Cajanus cajan (spotted pigeon pea), Lablab purpureus (hyacinth bean), Tamarindus indica (tamarind), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Moringa oleifera (drumstick tree), Musa sapientum (banana), Psidium guajava (guava), Syzygium cumini (black plum), Averrhoa carambola (star fruit), Piper betle (betel leaf), Ziziphus mauritiana (Indian jujube), Aegle marmelos (wood apple), and Zingiber officinale (ginger). 3.2. Plant parts used and mode of preparation The various plant parts used included whole plant, leaf, root, stem, flower, seed, bark, gum, fruit, petiole, and rhizome. Of the 107 uses observed in the present survey, leaves formed the part predominantly used (33.6%), followed by whole plant (15.9%), fruits (15.0%) and stems (11.2%). For a number of plants, multiple plant parts from the same plant were used. For instance, the roots of Achyranthes aspera were used to treat snake bite and diabetes, while seeds from the same plant were used for treatment of gonorrhea. A combination of bark and seed of Thevetia peruviana was used to treat mental disorders. The mode of administration was either oral or topical. For oral administration, generally juice was extracted from the plant part following crushing and then taken. However, in the case of Cocos nucifera, juice of the fruit (coconut juice) was directly taken for treatment of diarrhea. The barks and seeds of Syzygium cumini are also directly taken for diabetes, while a combination of leaf and petiole paste of Piper betle is taken as treatment for bronchitis, indigestion, and as antidote to poison. For topical applications, usually a paste of the plant part (e.g. Mikania cordata) or powdered plant part (e.g. bark of Crataeva religiosa) was applied. 3.3. Medical applications A plant or plant part may be used to treat a single ailment or multiple ailments. The leaves of Lannea grandis were used for diuretic purposes in case of urinary problems. Similarly, crushed whole plants of Typhonium giganteum were topically applied to reduce pain. On the other hand, the roots of Areca catechu were used to treat both helminthiasis and constipation. The leaves and fruits of Ananas comosus were used to treat fever, helminthiasis, and jaundice. In this case, the fruits were used for treatment of fever, while leaf juice was used to treat helminthiasis or jaundice. Mostly the uses of medicinal plants were for common ailments like respiratory tract disorders (cough, pneumonia, asthma, bronchitis), gastrointestinal problems (diarrhea, dysentery, constipation), skin diseases (scabies, eczema, itches), bone fractures, and cuts and wounds. However, the khamals used medicinal plants to treat more complicated diseases like heart diseases, hypertension, diabetes, urinary calculus, sexual disorders, malaria, and leprosy. One plant, Argyreia speciosa, was used to treat small pox when the disease was prevalent. From the number of plant species used for treatment of various ailments, it appears that gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory tract infections, skin diseases, sexual disorders, and diabetes are common among the Garos. The number of plants used to treat the above disorders or ailments were 18, 10, 15, 8, and 11. Nine plants were used to treat cuts and wounds. Other ailments treated included bone fractures, urinary tract problems, helminthiasis, heart diseases, hypertension, fever, debility, pain, chicken pox, toothache, jaundice, mental disorders, snake bites, measles, menstrual disorders, malaria, leprosy, insomnia, urinary calculus, and head lice. Certain plants were also used as abortifacient, diuretic, anti-emetic, energy stimulant, insect repellent, or as antidote to poison. 3.4. Reported pharmacological activities on plants used by the Garo tribal healers The various medicinal plants used by the Garo tribal healers of Netrakona district, Bangladesh were screened in the available scientific literature for reported relevant pharmacological activities. The results are summarized in Table 2. It may be seen from Table 2 that 32 medicinal plants out of the 74 plants used by Garo traditional healers have reported pharmacological activities, which validate their traditional use. Discussion We have previously conducted and published an account of an ethnobotanical survey conducted among the Garo tribal healers of Madhupur forest region, Bangladesh (Mia, et al, 2009). The present survey shows that considerable differences exist in the usage of medicinal plants between the Garo healers of Madhupur and the Garo healers of Netrakona district. While the Garo healers of Madhupur used 65 medicinal plants distributed into 43 families for treatment of various ailments, the Garo healers of Netrakona district used 74 plants distributed into 45 families. Out of these plants, only 18 plants were found to be used in common in both areas. These common use plants can be classified into three groups based on the ailments treated. The first group comprised of the same plant being used to treat the same ailment (e.g. use of Mikania cordata for treatment of cuts and wounds, use of Hibiscus rosa sinensis for treatment of dysentery, and use of Aphanamixis polystachya for treatment of skin diseases). The second group comprised of plants, which although not used for treatment of the same ailment, are used for treatment of related ailments (e.g. use of Cissus quadrangularis to treat bone fractures in Madhupur versus use of the same plant to treat wounds and sprains in Netrakona). The third group comprised of plants used to treat different ailments in the two regions surveyed (e.g. use of Achyranthes aspera as an abortifacient in Madhupur, while the same plant was used for treatment of snake bite, diabetes, and gonorrhea in Netrakona). Thus obviously, the traditional healers of the Garo tribe residing in different areas have developed their own unique system of medicinal plant usage. The differences cannot be attributed to geographical availability of plants, for both Madhupur and Netrakona have closely similar climate and vegetation. Thus this difference has arisen possibly from individual clinical practices of the healers with individually conducted trial and error methods. It is to be noted in this regard that the traditional Garo healers do not have any central database of medicinal plants; rather, each healer has developed his own treatment system, which again is dependent on his teacher and his personally developed expertise. As such, treatment with medicinal plants is a continually developing process among the healers and quite possibly has changed both with time as well as area of residence. The use of a number of medicinal plants by the Garo healers of Netrakona district finds support from scientific studies conducted on these plants regarding their phytochemical components as well as pharmacological activity studies. This validation indicates that the use of medicinal plants for treatment of specific ailments by indigenous healers need not be ignored by modern science; instead, this ethnobotanical information can form the basis for further studies leading to the development of lead compounds and newer drugs. Certainly, the available studies indicate that plants like Centella asiatica, Ageratum conyzoides, Terminalia arjuna, Moringa oleifera, and Aegle marmelos present excellent potential for development of drugs leading to treatment of both widespread but common ailments like gastrointestinal disorders, as well as complicated ailments like diabetes and heart diseases, which are prevalent throughout the world population and which cannot be treated satisfactorily with modern allopathic medicine. Many other plants have not been studied at all scientifically thus far. 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Samant and N.N. Rege, 2008. Protective effect of Tinospora cordifolia, Phyllanthus emblica and their combination against antitubercular drugs induced hepatic damage: an experimental study. Phytotherapy Research, 22(5): 646-650. Bhattacharya, S., S.R. Chaudhuri, S. Chattopadhyay and S.K. Bandyopadhyay, 2007. Healing properties of some Indian medicinal plants against Indomethacin-induced gastric ulceration of rats. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition, 41(2): 106-114. Pramyothin, P., P. Samosorn, S. Poungshompoo and C. Chaichantipyuth, 2006. The protective effects of Phyllanthus emblica Linn. extract on ethanol induced rat hepatic injury. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 107(3): 361-364. Lee, C.Y., W.H. Peng, H.Y. Cheng, F.N. Chen, M.T. Lai and T.H. Chiu, 2006. hepatoprotective effect of Phyllanthus in Taiwan on acute liver damage induced by carbon tetrachloride. American Journal of Chinese Medicine, 34(3): 471-482. Tasduq, S.A., P. Kaisar, D.K. Gupta, B.K. Kapahi, H.S. 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Okezie, B.O. and F.V. Kosikowski, 1982. Cassava as a food. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 17(3): 259-275. Saxena, R., K. Venkaiah, P. Anitha, L. Venu and M. Raghunath, 2007. Antioxidant activity of commonly consumed plant foods of India: contribution of their phenolic content. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 58(4): 250-260. Grover, J.K., S. Yadav and V. Vats, 2002. Medicinal plants of India with anti-diabetic potential. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 81(1): 81-100. Esposito Avella, M., A. Diaz, I. de Gracia, R. de Tello and M.P. Gupta, 1991. Evaluation of traditional medicine: effects of Cajanus cajan L. and of Cassis fistula L. on carbohydrate metabolism in mice. Revista Medica de Panama, 16(1): 39-45. Ajose, F.O., 2007. Some Nigerian plants of dermatologic importance. International Journal of Dermatology, 46 Suppl 1: 48-55. Khan, M.R., M. Kihara and A.D. Omoloso, 2001. Antimicrobial activity of Cassia alata. Fitoterapia, 72(5): 561-564. Ibrahim, D. and H. Osman, 1995. Antimicrobial activity of Cassia alata from Malaysia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 45(3): 151-156. Palanichamy, S. and S. Nagarajan, 1990. Antifungal activity of Cassia alata leaf extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 29(3): 337-340. Sartorelli, P., C.S. Carvalho, J.Q. Reimao, M.J. Ferreira and A.G. Tempone, 2009. Antiparasitic activity of biochanin A, an isolated isoflavone from fruits of Cassia fistula (Leguminosae). Parasitology Research, 104(2): 311-314. Duraipandiyan, V. and S. Ignacimuthu, 2007. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of Cassia fistula L.: an ethnomedicinal plant. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 112(3): 590-594. Senthil Kumar, M., R. Sripriya, H. Vijaya Raghavan and P.K. Sehgal, 2006. Wound healing potential of Cassia fistula on infected albino rat model. Journal of Surgical Research, 131(2): 283-289. Gupta, M., U.K. Mazumder, N. Rath and D.K. Mukhopadhyay, 2000. 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Bactericidal and anti-adhesive properties of culinary and medicinal plants against Helicobacter pylori. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 11(47): 7499-7507. (1) Mohammed Rahmatullah, (1) Israt Jahan Mukti, (1) A.K.M. Fahmidul Haque, (1) Md. Ariful Haque Mollik, (1) Kanta Parvin, (1) Rownak Jahan, (2) Majeedul H. Chowdhury, (3) Taufiq Rahman (1) Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, University of Development Alternative House No. 78, Road No. 11A, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205 Bangladesh (2) New York City College of Technology The City University of New York Broooklyn, NY 11201, USA (3) Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road CB2 1PD, Cambridge, UK Corresponding Author: Professor Dr. Mohammed Rahmatullah, Pro-Vice Chancellor University of Development Alternative House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new) Dhanmondi R/A, Dhaka-1205 Bangladesh E-mail: rahamatm@hotmail.com Fax: 88-02-8157339
Table 1: Medicinal plants utilized by the Garo tribal healers of
Netrakona district, Bangladesh
Serial Scientific Name Family Name
Number
1 Adhatoda vasica Nees Acanthaceae
2 Justicia gendarussa L. Acanthaceae
3 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae
4 Lannea grandis Anacardiaceae
(Dennst.) Engl.
5 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae
6 Centella asiatica Apiaceae
(L.) Urb.
7 Thevetia peruviana Apocynaceae
(Pers.) K. Schum.
8 Amorphophallus Araceae
campanulatus
9 Colocasia esculenta Araceae
(L.) Schott
10 Typhonium Araceae
giganteum Engl.
11 Areca catechu L. Arecaceae
12 Borassus flabellifer L. Arecaceae
13 Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae
14 Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae
15 Mikania cordata Asteraceae
(Burm.f.) B. L.
Robinson
16 Tagetes patula L. Asteraceae
17 Bombax ceiba L. Bombacaceae
18 Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae
(L.) Merr.
19 Cereus grandiflorus Cactaceae
(L.) P.Mill.
20 Crataeva religiosa Capparidaceae
G. Forst.
21 Carica papaya L. Caricaceae
22 Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae
(Roxb. ex DC.)
Wight & Arn.
23 Argyreia speciosa Convolvulaceae
(L.f.) Sweet
24 Ipomoea fistulosa Convolvulaceae
Mart. ex Choisy
25 Luffa cylindrica Cucurbitaceae
M. Roem
26 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cuscutaceae
27 Shorea robusta C. F. Dipterocarpaceae
Gaertn. (Smit)
28 Emblica officinalis Euphorbiaceae
Gaertn.
29 Manihot esculenta Euphorbiaceae
Crantz.
30 Cajanus cajan (L.) Fabaceae
Millsp.
31 Cassia alata L. Fabaceae
32 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae
33 Cassia tora L. Fabaceae
34 Lablab purpureus Fabaceae
(L.) Sweet
35 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae
36 Mucuna pruriens Fabaceae
(L.) DC.
37 Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae
38 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae
39 Asparagus racemosus Liliaceae
Willd.
40 Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae
41 Punica granatum L. Lythraceae
42 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Malvaceae
43 Melastoma Marantaceae
malabathricum L.
44 Aphanamixis polystachya Meliaceae
(Wall.) R. Parker
45 Azadirachta indica Meliaceae
A. Juss.
46 Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae
(Willd.) Hook.f. &
Thoms.
47 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae
48 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae
49 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae
50 Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae
51 Musa sapientum L. Musaceae
52 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae
53 Syzygium cumini (L.) Myrtaceae
Skeels
54 Nymphaea nouchali Nymphaeaceae
Burm.f.
55 Averrhoa carambola L. Oxalidaceae
56 Piper betle L. Piperaceae
57 Bambusa vulgaris Poaceae
Schrad. ex J. C. Wendl.
58 Cynodon dactylon Poaceae
(L.) Pers.
59 Persicaria hydropiper Polygonaceae
(L.) Delarbre
60 Drynaria quercifolia Polypodiaceae
(L.) J. Smith
61 Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae
Lam.
62 Aegle marmelos Rutaceae
(L.) Corr.
63 Citrus grandis Rutaceae
(L.) Osbeck
64 Smilax china L. S milacaceae
65 Datura metel L. Solanaceae
66 Solanum melongena L. Solanaceae
67 Solanum torvum Solanaceae
Swartz
68 Abroma augusta L.f. Sterculiaceae
69 Clerodendrum viscosum Verbenaceae
Vent.
70 Duranta repens L. Verbenaceae
71 Nyctanthes Verbenaceae
arbortristis L.
72 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae
73 Curcuma zedoaria Zingiberaceae
(Christm.) Roscoe
74 Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae
Roscoe
Serial Local Name Plant part
Number utilized
1 Alot Leaf
2 Dojogopy Leaf
3 Mimang-khache Root, seed
4 Jikkha Leaf
5 Theghace Bark, fruit
6 Mishichel Whole plant
7 Kolshe-phool Bark, seed
8 Thajhang Stem
9 Kochu Stem
10 Doodh-kochu Whole plant
11 Ghua Root
12 Taal-phang Leaf, fruit, gum
13 Narikhol Fruit
14 Phool-kure Whole plant
15 Rifjhe Whole plant
16 Gendha-phang Whole plant
17 Bolchu Root
18 Annarhos Leaf, fruit
19 S hijhu-kantha Whole plant
20 Dathon Leaf, bark
21 Modhu Leaf, fruit, gum
22 Oorjun-phang Leaf, bark
23 Bainnajhan Whole plant
24 Dhool-kolme Stem, gum
25 Shakkhapang Seed
26 S hunhalota Whole plant
27 Shal-phang Leaf
28 Amloke-phang Fruit
29 Tamachul Tuber
30 Mehndher Leaf, seed
31 Akad-bijakh Leaf
32 Bhandhor-late Leaf, fruit
33 Jhejhe Leaf
34 Genhache Seed
35 Ambe-miocchup Whole plant
36 B ilhai-chimte Leaf
37 Tintle Fruit, seed
38 Tulshe-phang Leaf, seed
39 Mimang-thamache Root
40 Mehendhe Leaf, stem
41 Dahlum-phang Leaf
42 Joyhba Whole plant,
43 Kakkhu Leaf
44 Uha-phang Seed
45 Nimmho Leaf, bark
46 Poddho-guloncho Whole plant
47 Prup Leaf
48 Ladhum Fruit
49 Sheola-phang Leaf
50 Khonjhon Leaf
51 Thirikh-phang Fruit
52 Hobirham Leaf, fruit,
seed
53 Jayham Bark, seed
54 Aphlak Whole plant
55 Kamarangha Fruit
56 Paan Leaf, petiole
57 Todhah-woah Leaf, root
58 Shame-cheng Whole plant
59 Memang-ballat Leaf, whole
plant
60 Ponkhe-raaz Whole plant
61 Khankare Leaf, fruit
62 Belate-phang Leaf, fruit
63 Jhambura Fruit
64 Saam-rhefhu Whole plant
65 Dhutra-phang Leaf, seed
66 Bharhing Leaf
67 Khumka Leaf, root
68 Ulot-kombol Leaf, root
69 Maccha-moggul Leaf
70 Kata-mehendhe Leaf, bark,
fruit
71 Sheuly-phang Leaf, flower,
seed
72 Haarzora Whole plant
73 Ramane-sham Tuber
74 Hiiching Rhizome
Serial Ailment(s) treated [Administration, O = oral,
Number T = topical]
1 Cough, pneumonia, asthma. Leaf juice is
used against cough, pneumonia and
asthma [O].
2 Bone fracture and fracture-associated pain.
Leaf paste is applied to area of fracture [T].
3 Snake bite, diabetes, gonorrhea. Root is used
for snake bite and diabetes [O]. Seed is
used for gonorrhea [O].
4 Urinary problems. Leaf is taken as diuretic
[O].
5 Influenza, helminthiasis. The green fruit is
used against influenza [O]. The bark is
used against helminthic infections [O].
6 Dysentery, intestinal pain. Whole plant juice
is used against dysentery and intestinal pain
[O].
7 Mental disorders. A combination of bark
and seed paste is taken for mental disorders
[O].
8 Skin diseases (scabies, eczema, itches). Juice
obtained from stem is used against skin
diseases [T].
9 Cuts and wounds. Juice obtained from stems
is used to stop bleeding from cuts and
wounds [T].
10 Pain. Crushed whole plant is used to reduce
pain [T].
11 Constipation, helminthiasis. The juice of
young root is used for treatment of
constipation [O]. Root juice is used for
treatment of helminthiasis [O].
12 Debility, insomnia. Fruit juice or gum from
the plant is used for treatment of debility
[O]. Leaf juice is taken for treatment of
insomnia [O].
13 Skin diseases, skin spots, diarrhea. The green
fruit's cores are used to treat skin
disease and skin spots [T]. Water present
within the fruit (coconut water) is used
for treatment of diarrhea [O].
14 Insect repellent, wounds, itches. Paste of
the whole plant is used as an insect
repellent and for treatment of wounds and
itches [T].
15 Cuts and wounds (to stop bleeding). Paste
of whole plant is used to stop bleeding
[T].
16 Cuts and wounds (to stop bleeding). Paste
of the whole plant is applied to stop
bleeding [T].
17 Urinary calculus, loss of libido. Root is used
for treatment of urinary calculus [O].
Root is also used to increase sexual
ability [O].
18 Fever, helminthiasis, jaundice. Fruit is used
against fever [O]. Leaf juice used against
helminthiasis and jaundice [O].
19 Bone fracture, to induce hallucinations.
Whole plant paste is applied to bone
fractures [T]. Whole plant juice is taken
to induce hallucinations [O].
20 Gonorrhea, toothache. Leaf juice is used
against gonorrhea [O]. Bark is used
against toothache [T].
21 Dysentery, ring worm. Fruit is used against
dysentery [O]. A combination of gum
and leaf paste is used against ring worm
[T].
22 Heart disease, dysentery, diarrhea, jaundice.
Bark powder is taken for heart disease
(chest pain, abnormal heart beatings and
palpitations are taken as symptoms of
heart ailment), dysentery and diarrhea
[O]. Leaf juice is taken for jaundice [O].
23 S mall pox, skin diseases. Paste of the whole
plant is used against small-pox and skin
diseases [T].
24 Antidote to poison. A combination of gum
and stem paste is used as antidote to
poison [O].
25 Abortifacient. The seed is taken as an
abortifacient [O].
26 Sexual diseases. Juice from whole plant is
taken for sexual diseases [O].
27 Urinary problems. Leaf paste is taken as
diuretic [O].
28 To increase taste, jaundice, gastric problems,
indigestion. Fruits are consumed [O].
29 Feeling of tiredness, uneasy feeling while
working, dizziness during work, fainting
when without food. Tuber is taken when
the above symptoms appear [O].
30 Diabetes, energy stimulant. Leaf juice is
used against diabetes [O]. Seed paste is
used as energy stimulant [O].
31 Ring worm. Leaf paste is used against ring
worm [T].
32 Cancer, injury, dermatitis. Fruit paste is used
for cancer [O]and injuries [T]. Leaf paste
is used against dermatitis [T]. Note that
the Garo healers do not have any
diagnostic procedures for diagnosis of
cancer. Cancer is defined by them as
prolonged weakness, loss of appetite,
fever, itches that do not heal, or
swellings, and which cannot be attributed
to any of their known ailments. The term
cancer' has probably been picked up
from intermixing with allopathic doctors
for there is no equivalent Garo word(s)
for the disease.
33 Urinary problems. Leaf juice is taken as
diuretic [O].
34 Low sperm count. Seed is taken to increase
sperm [O].
35 Gynecological problems, sex stimulant. Juice
from crushed whole plant is taken to
treat gynecological problems, as well as
sex stimulant [O].
36 Skin diseases. Leaf paste is used for skin
diseases [T].
37 Fever, to stop vomiting, asthma. The fruit
is used against fever [O]. The fruit pulp
is used to stop vomiting [O]. Seed is
used against asthma [O].
38 Cough, fever, bronchitis, diabetes, indigestion.
A combination of leaf and seed juice is
used for cough, fever, bronchitis, diabetes,
and indigestion [O]. Note that diabetes is
diagnosed by Garo healers by the
sweetness of urine accompanied by
fatigue.
39 Snake bite, wounds. Paste of the root is
used against snake bite and wounds [T].
40 Eczema, leprosy, jaundice. Paste of stem
is used against eczema and leprosy [T]. Leaf
juice is used against jaundice [O].
41 Onycomycosis (fungal infection of the nail).
Newly formed leaf paste is used for
oncomycosis [T].
42 Dysentery, debility. Paste of whole plant
is taken for dysentery [O]. Leaf juice is
taken for debility [O].
43 Urinary problems. Leaf juice is taken as
diuretic [O].
44 Skin diseases. The oil of seed is used for
skin diseases [T].
45 Fever, chicken pox, measles, skin diseases.
Leaf juice is used for fever, pox and measles
[O]. A combination of leaf and bark paste
is used against skin diseases [T].
46 Hypertension (identified by dizziness, pain
in head and neck), diabetes, snake bite.
Paste of the whole plant is used for
treatment of hypertension, diabetes and
snake bites [O].
47 Dysentery. Young leaf juice is used against
dysentery [O].
48 Diabetes. The fruit is consumed as treatment
for diabetes [O].
49 Asthma. Leaf juice is used against asthma
[O].
50 Diabetes. Leaf juice is taken for diabetes
[O].
51 Dysentery, warts. Fruit is used as a dietary
item for treatment of dysentery [O]. The
skin of fruit is used for treatment of
warts [T].
52 Toothache, acne, diabetes. Leaf is used
against toothache [T]. Leaf paste is used
against acne [T]. A combination of seed
and fruit is used for treatment of diabetes
[O].
53 Diabetes. A combination of seed and bark
is used for treatment of diabetes [O].
54 Indigestion, diabetes. Paste of the whole
plant is taken as treatment for indigestion
and diabetes [O].
55 Diarrhea, vomiting, influenza. Fruit is taken
as treatment for diarrhea and influenza and
to stop vomiting [O].
56 Bronchitis, antidote to poison, indigestion.
A combination of leaf and petiole paste
is used against bronchitis, indigestion, and
as antidote to poison [O].
57 Urinary infection, menstrual disorder. Leaf
is used for treatment of urinary infection
[O]. Root is used for treatment of
menstrual disorder [O].
58 Cuts and wounds. Paste of the whole plant
is used against cuts and wounds to stop
bleeding [T].
59 Menstrual pain, cuts and wounds (to stop
bleeding), insect repellent. Leaf juice is
taken to reduce menstrual pain [O]. Leaf
paste is used to stop bleeding [T]. The
whole plant is used to stop pest attack on
storage grain.
60 Debility, jaundice. Paste of the whole plant
is taken for treatment of debility and
jaundice [O].
61 Influenza, cough, dysentery pain. Green fruits
are used for treatment of influenza and
cough [O]. Young leaf paste is used for
treatment of dysentery pain [O].
62 Constipation, dysentery, indigestion, pain.
The fruit is taken for constipation, dysentery
or indigestion [O]. Leaf paste is applied
to reduce pain [T].
63 Skin diseases (scabies, eczema, itches). Fruit
juice is applied as treatment for skin
diseases [T].
64 Sex stimulant, indigestion. Paste of the whole
plant is taken for indigestion and as a sex
stimulant [O].
65 Mental disorders. A combination of leaf
and seed paste is used for treatment of
mental disorders [O].
66 Lice. Leaf paste is used to get rid of lice
[T].
67 Asthma, diabetes, hypertension. A
combination of leaf and root juice is used
against asthma, diabetes and
hypertension [O].
68 Diabetes, sexual disorder. Leaf juice is used
for diabetes [O]. Root juice is used for
sexual disorder [O].
69 Lice infections. Leaf juice is used against
lice [T].
70 Malaria. The fruit is used against malarial
fever. In the absence of fruit, leaf or bark
is also administered for malaria [O].
71 Constipation in children, fever. The
flower or seed is used to treat
constipation of children [O]. Leaf juice is
used against fever [O].
72 Wounds, sprains. Paste of the whole plant
is applied to wounds and sprains [T].
73 Sprain, dermatitis. Tuber paste is used against
sprain, and dermatitis [T].
74 Coughs, to reduce vomiting, gastric problems.
Rhizome paste is taken for cough, to reduce
vomiting, and gastric problems [O].
Table 2: Reported pharmacological activities of some plants used
by the Garo tribal healers of Netrakona district, Bangladesh
Serial Scientific name Reported pharmacological activities
number of plant or plant parts
(as of
Table 1)
1 Adhatoda vasica Presence of a bronchodilator alkaloid
Nees (vasicinone) in the plant (Amin, 1959);
protection by alkaloids present in the
plant against allergen-induced bronchial
obstruction in guinea pigs (Dorsch,
1991); bronchodilator action of
6,7,8,9,10,12-hexahydro-azepino-[2,1-b]-
quinazoline-12-one, a chemically modified
compound of the alkaloid vasicine
obtained from the plant (Johri, 2000);
anti-inflammatory activity of alkaloid
fraction obtained from the plant as
demonstrated in modified hen's egg
chorioallantoic membrane test
(Chakraborty, 2001) beneficial role of
the plant in obstructive airway diseases
including asthma, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and cystic fibrosis
(Sharafkhaneh, et al, 2007).
3 Achyranthes Powdered whole plant as well as aqueous
aspera L. and methanol extracts decreased blood
glucose levels in normal and alloxan
diabetic rabbits (Akhtar, 1991).
5 Mangifera Anthelminthic and anti-allergic
indica L. properties present in aqueous extract of
stem bark as well as mangiferin (the
major polyphenol present in the extract)
as demonstrated in mice experimentally
infected with the nematode, Trichinella
spiralis (Garcia, et al, 2003).
6 Centella Reported healing effects of aqueous
asiatica (L.) extract of the plant and asiaticoside (an
Urb. active constituent of the water extract)
on acetic acid-induced gastric ulcers in
rats (Cheng, et al, 2004); protective
effect of fresh juice of the plant
against ethanol-, aspirin-, cold
restraint stress-and pyloric ligation
induced gastric ulcers in rats (Sairam,
et al, 2001); inhibited formation of
gastric lesions and decreased
myeloperoxidase activity obtained with
administration of plant extract in
ethanol-induced gastric mucosal lesions
in rats (Cheg, 2000); in vitro and in
vivo wound healing activity of
asiaticoside isolated from the plant in
guinea pigs and streptozotocin (STZ)
diabetic rats (Shukla, et al, 1999).
10 Typhonium Analgesic activity of plant extract as
giganteum Engl. demonstrated in receptor binding assays
with three neuropeptide
receptors--bradykinin II expressed in
Chinese hamster ovary cells, neurokinin I
expressed in astrocytoma cells, and
calcitonin gene related peptide (Sampson,
et al, 2000).
13 Cocos nucifera Used in Mexico to treat gastrointestinal
L. disorders, reported anti-bacterial
activity of crude extract against various
enteropathogenic bacteria (Alanis, et al,
2005); husk fiber used in northeastern
Brazil traditional medicine for treatment
of diarrhea, aqueous extract of husk
fiber (containing polyphenolic compounds)
demonstrated anti-microbial activity
against Staphylococcus aureus (Esquenazi,
et al, 2002); reportedly, water from
young coconut can be used in children
with mild diarrheal disease (Adams,
1992).
14 Ageratum Hematopoietic potential observed in
conyzoides L. albino rats with ethanolic leaf extract
of the plant (Ita et al, 2007); coumarin,
isolated from the plant showed
insecticidal activity against Diaphania
hyalinata, Musca domestica, Periplaneta
americana, and Rhyzopertha dominica
(Moreira, et al, 2007); larvicidal
activity of oil from the plant against
Aedes aegypti larva (de Mendonca, et al,
2005); anti-bacterial and wound healing
properties reported in methanol extracts
of the plant (Chah, et al, 2006) and
plant leaves (Oladejo, et al, 2003) in
rats; analgesic properties reported in
leaf juice extract when administered to
Wistar rats using hot plate method and
writhing syndrome induced by acetic acid
(Abena, et al, 1993); anti-bacterial
properties reported for crude extracts
from the plant (Durodola, 1977).
15 Mikania cordata Analgesic activity demonstrated through
(Burm.f.) B. L. inhibition of acetic acid-induced
Robinson writhing in mice by crude extract of the
plant and a sesquiterpene dilactone,
deoxymikanolide isolated from the plant
(Ahmed, et al, 2001).
21 Carica papaya Anti-microbial activity of meat, seed and
L. pulp of unripe fruit against several
enteropathogens--Bacillus subtilis,
Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli,
Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus,
Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
and Klebsiella pneumoniae (Osato, et al,
1993).
22 Terminalia Inhibitory effects of ethanolic bark
arjuna (Roxb. extract on platelet activation in vitro
ex DC.) Wight & in healthy subjects and patients with
Arn. coronary artery disease (Malik, et al,
2009); protective effect of butanolic
bark extract against doxorubicin-induced
cardiotoxicity in male Wistar rats
(Singh, et al, 2008); review on the bark
of the plant as exerting inotropic and
hypotensive effect, increasing coronary
artery flow and protecting myocardium
against ischemic damage (Dwivedi, 2007);
protection of rabbit heart by bark of the
plant against ischemic-reperfusion injury
(Gauthaman, et al, 2005);
cardioprotective effect of alcoholic
extract of bark against isoproterenol-
induced myocardial injury (Karthikeyan,
et al, 2003); administration of bark
extract led to improvements in clinical
and treadmill exercise parameters in
patients with stable angina with
provocable ischemia on treadmill exercise
(Bharani, et al, 2002); significant
cardiac protection against isoproterenol-
induced myocardial necrosis in rats by
arjunolic acid, a triterpene present in
bark (Sumitra, et al, 2001); augmentation
by dried pulverized bark of endogenous
anti-oxidant compounds in rat heart and
prevention of oxidative stress associated
with ischemic-reperfusion injury of the
heart (Gauthaman, et al, 2001).
Protective effect of methanolic extract
of the plant against Helicobacter pylori
26695 lipopolysaccharide-induced gastric
ulcer in rats (Devi, et al, 2008);
gastroprotective effect of bark on
diclofenac sodium induced gastric ulcer
(Devi, et al, 2007); protective effect of
aqueous extract of the plant against
carbon tetrachloride induced hepatic and
renal disorders (Manna, et al, 2006).
23 Argyreia Anti-microbial activity present in
speciosa (L.f.) flavanoid sulfates and other fractions of
Sweet the plant (Habbu, et al, 2009);
immunomodulatory activity in mice on
administration of ethanolic extract of
root (Gokhale, et al, 2003).
26 Cuscuta reflexa Anti-bacterial activity in methanol
Roxb. extract of stem (Pal, et al, 2006).
28 Emblica Enteroprotective efficacy of Triphala, a
officinalis herbal preparation, (one of its
Gaertn. constituents being the fruit of Emblica
officinalis) against methotrexate-induced
small intestinal damage in rats (Nariya,
et al, 2009); ameliorative effect of
aqueous extract of the plant against
ochratoxin-induced toxicity in liver and
kidney of mice (Verma, 2008); suppression
of carcinogen-induced response in rat
liver by methanolic fruit extract,
(Sultana, et al, 2008); protective effect
against antitubercular drugs-induced
hepatic damage in rats, (Panchabhai, et
al, 2008); healing effects of ethanol
extract of the plant against
indomethacin-induced gastric ulceration
in rats, (Bhattacharya, et al, 2007);
protective effects of extract of the
plant against ethanol-induced rat hepatic
injury (Pramyothin, et al, 2006);
hepatoprotective effect of oral
administration of methanolic extract of
the plant against acute liver damage
induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats
(Lee, et al, 2006); protective effect of
a 50% hydroalcoholic fruit extract
against anti-tuberculosis drugs-induced
liver toxicity (Tasduq, et al, 2005);
amelioration of hyperthyroidism and
hepatic lipid peroxidation induced by
L-thyroxine by ethanolic extract of
fruits in mice, (Panda, 2003). Analgesic
and anti-pyretic effects of ethanol and
aqueous extracts of the plant in mice
(Perianayagam, et al, 2004);
gastroprotective effects of ethanol
extract of fruit in different
experimental models in rats including
pylorus ligation Shay rats,
indomethacin-, and hypothermic restraint
stress-induced gastric ulcer (Al-Rehaily,
et al, 2002); anti-ulcerogenic effect of
methanolic extract of the plant against
different acute gastric ulcer models in
rats induced by aspirin, ethanol, cold
restraint stress pyloric ligation and
healing effect in chronic gastric ulcers
in rats induced by acetic acid (Sairam,
et al, 2002).
29 Manihot Cassava has good carbohydrate content and
esculenta can be a potential source of energy in
Crantz. cases of feeling of tiredness, uneasy
feeling while working, dizziness during
work, and fainting when without food
(Okezie, 1982). Note that the Garo
healers lack access to oral glucose
solutions in their forest habitat.
30 Cajanus cajan Anti-oxidant activity due to presence of
(L.) Millsp. polyphenols in the plant, which can be
useful protection against diabetes
(Saxena, et al, 2007); used in the
ancient Ayurvedic system of medicine in
India against diabetes, (Grover, et al,
2002); used in Panamanian folk medicine
for treatment of diabetes, aqueous
fraction of the plant demonstrated
hypoglycemic activity in glucose
tolerance test in mice, (Esposito, et al,
1991).
31 Cassia alata L. Used in herbal preparations of Nigeria
against skin diseases (Ajose, 2007);
broad spectrum anti-microbial activity
reported for methanol extracts of leaves,
flowers, stem and root barks of the plant
(Khan, et al, 2001) and ethanol extract
of leaves, including high activity
against various species of dermatophytic
fungi, (Ibrahim, 1995); anti-fungal
activity reported for leaf extract
(Palanichamy, 1990).
32 Cassia fistula Anti-parasitic activity of biochanin A,
L. an isolated isoflavone from fruits of the
plant (Sartorelli, et al, 2009); reported
anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activity
in various extracts of flowers
(Duraipandiyan, 2007); infected dermal
wound healing potential demonstrated in
albino rats by alcohol extract of leaves
(Senthil, et al, 2006); anti-tumor
activity of methanolic extract of seed
against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (Gupta,
et al, 2000).
40 Lawsonia Anti-bacterial activity present in hot
inermis L. aqueous and methanolic extracts of the
plant (Ghosh, et al, 2008), as well as
ethanolic extracts (Aqil, 2007); reported
anti-mycotic activity (Henna, );
anti-microbial activity reported for
fresh and dry leaves and seeds (Habbal,
et al, 2005); fungitoxic activity of bark
extract against 13 ring worm fungi
(Singh, 1989); an anti-fungal agent,
2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone isolated
from leaves of the plant, which exhibited
wide fungitoxic spectrum (Tripathi, et
al, 1978). Hepatoprotective activity of
an ethanol-water (1:1) extract of the
plant demonstrated against carbon
tetrachloride-induced liver toxicity in
mice, (Anand, et al, 1992).
41 Punica granatum An anti-fungal peptide, pomegranin
L. isolated from fruit peels, (Guo, et al,
2009); reported anti-microbial
(Vasconcelos, et al, 2006; Holetz, et al,
2002) and anti-fungal effects
(Vasconcelos, et al, 2003; Duttta, et al,
1998).
45 Azadirachta Immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory,
indica A. Juss. anti-hyperglycemic, anti-ulcer,
anti-malarial, anti-fungal,
anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-oxidant,
anti-mutagenic and anti-carcinogenic
properties present in various parts of
the plant (Subapriya, 205);
anti-dermatophytic activity present in
leaf and seed extracts (Natarajan, et al,
2002); reported efficacy of plant paste
for treatment of scabies (Charles, 1992).
46 Tinospora Used in Indian traditional medicinal
cordifolia systems for diabetes, hypertension,
(Willd.) jaundice, rheumatism, common cold and
Hook.f. & skin diseases (Gowrishankar, et al,
Thoms. 2009).
48 Ficus racemosa a-Amyrin acetate, isolated from fruits
L. reportedly demonstrated in vivo
hyperglycemic activity in sucrose
challenged streptozotocin-induced
diabetic rats (Narender, et al, 2009);
reported glucose lowering efficacy of
methanol extract of stem bark in normal
and alloxan-induced diabetic rats
(Bhaskara, et al, 2002).
50 Moringa Used in Indian traditional medicine
oleifera Lam. against diabetes, hypoglycemic and
anti-diabetic effects observed with
aqueous extract of leaves in normal and
streptozotocin-induced sub, mild and
severely diabetic rats (Jaiswal, et al,
2009); plant extract containing a
bio-active component,
quercetin-3-glucoside demonstrated
ameliorating effect for glucose
intolerance in Wistar rats and
Goto-Kakizaki rats (Ndong, et al, 2007);
used in Senegalese traditional medicine
for treatment of diabetes (Dieye, et al,
2008); hypoglycemic activity of ethanolic
extracts in alloxan diabetic rats (Kar,
et al, 2003).
53 Syzygium cumini Used for treatment of diabetes in
(L.) Skeels Brazilian traditional medicine, aqueous
leaf extract of the plant reportedly
inhibited adenosine deaminase activity
and reduced glucose levels in
hyperglycemic patients (Bopp, et al,
2009); ferulic acid, present in ethanolic
extract of seed has been shown to have
hypoglycemic, anti-oxidative, and
pancreatic b-cell regenerative effect in
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats
(Mandal, et al, 2008); a-glucosidase
inhibitory of seed kernel extract in
vitro and in Goto-Kakizaki rats (Shinde,
et al, 2008); administration of ethanolic
extract of seed powder to alloxan
diabetic rats led to decreased blood
sugar and improvements in pancreatic
islets (Singh, 2007).
56 Piper betle L. Gastric ulcer healing action of
allylpyrocatechol (a component of the
plant) against indomethacin-induced
stomach ulceration in mice (Yadav, et al,
2009) and rat (Bhattacharya, et al,
2007).
62 Aegle marmelos Analgesic activity of methanol extract of
(L.) Corr. leaves against acetic acid-induced
writhing and tail flick test in mice
(Shankarananth, et al, 2007); chloroform
extract of root demonstrated inhibition
of Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli and
Shigella spp. in vitro and also inhibited
castor oil-induced diarrhea in rats
(Mazumder, et al, 2006); unripe fruit
extract demonstrated gastroprotective
effect against gastric mucosal damage in
rats induced by absolute ethanol, as well
as inhibited castor oil-induced
intestinal transit and accumulation of
intestinal fluids in mice (Dhuley, 2003);
anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic and
analgesic properties of leaf extract as
demonstrated by inhibition of
carrageenan-induced paw edema and
cotton-pellet granuloma in rats,
reduction of early and late phases of paw
licking in mice, and reduction of
hyperpyrexia in rats (Arul, et al, 2005);
inhibition of castor oil-induced diarrhea
in mice by aqueous and methanolic
extracts of unripe fruits (Shoba, 2001).
67 Solanum torvum Ethanolic extract of the plant prevented
Swartz the development of high blood pressure
induced by a diet rich in fructose in
rats (Mohan, et al, 2009).
68 Abroma augusta A combination of aqueous extract of dried
L.f. powder of root and leaves of Abroma
augusta and Azadirachta indica lowered
blood sugar in alloxan diabetic rats when
administered orally (Halim, 2003).
70 Duranta repens Inhibitory action of ethyl acetate and
L. aqueous extracts of fruits reported
against Plasmodium berghei, (Castro,
1996).
71 Nyctanthes Chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts of
arbortristis L. flowers demonstrated anti-bacterial
activity against several gram-positive
and gram-negative microorganisms
(Khatune, 2001); immunostimulant activity
observed in mice fed with 50% ethanolic
extract of seeds, flowers and leaves
(Puri, et al, 1 994); analgesic and
anti-pyretic activity in water soluble
portion of an ethanol extract of leaves
(Saxena, et al, 1987).
72 Cissus Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects
quadrangularis reported of the methanol extract of the
L. plant in mice and rats, respectively
(Panthong, et al, 2007).
74 Zingiber Hydroethanol extract of the plant
officinale demonstrated inhibitory activities
Roscoe against Helicobacter pylori (causative
agent of acute and chronic gastritis),
and Campylobacter jejuni (common cause of
enteric infections, particularly among
children, which results in severe
diarrhea)124; reported bactericidal and
anti-adhesive properties (assessed by
inhibition of binding of four strains of
FITC-labeled Helicobacter pylori to
stomach sections) of aqueous extracts
observed against Helicobacter pylori
(O'Mahony, et al, 2005).
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