American sex in the private and public sectors.

Sex, Love, and Health in America: Private Choices and Public Policies. Edited by Edward O. Laumann and Robert T. Michael. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2000, 535 pages. Hardcover, $48.

Laumann, Michael, and numerous other researchers present a cornucopia of findings about American sexuality. Each chapter addresses a dimension of sexual functioning and the causes or consequences of phenomena such as STDs, abortion, and childhood sexual abuse. Most striking about the book is its nestling of research findings in a policy-oriented framework. This organization places in the reader's mind the potential for sexuality research to have real-world applications. In this review, we briefly summarize each section of the book. Next, we comment on some shortcomings of the book. Finally, we highlight several contributions of the book as a whole.

Organization and Summary

The book is organized into three parts. In the prologue, Laumann and Michael introduce the reader to the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) database used to conduct the analyses presented in each chapter. The first part of the book comprises two chapters on sexuality during adolescence. In the first chapter, Joyner and Laumann investigate the factors associated with teenage sexual intercourse. The authors examine variables such as changes in the age at first sexual intercourse from the 1930s to the 1970s. They present support for the hypothesis that post-sexual-revolution onset of sexual intercourse is better predicted by personal characteristics such as age at puberty than it is by race and socioeconomic distinctions. In chapter 2, Michael and Joyner examine the factors that influence the choice to give birth. One standout finding from this chapter is that parental education is an excellent predictor of the likelihood of bringing a child to term.

The second part of the book comprises four chapters addressing sexuality during adulthood. In chapter 3, Laumann and Youm classify adults into four modes or groups of sexual expression and investigate the causes and consequences of membership in these groups. The groups are constructed using self-reports of variables such as the number of past sexual partners. The authors argue that the ability to classify adult sexuality into distinct groupings makes public policy and future research more manageable.

In chapter 4, Browning and Laumann examine the long-term effects of early sexual experience on later sexual behavior. The authors present two hypotheses predicting higher sociosexuality (a preference for short-term sexual relationships; see Simpson & Gangestad, 1991) as a result of early sexual exposure. The authors present a psychological hypothesis, generated from psychoanalytic theory, that early sexual trauma leads to psychological disorders. The alternative, a sociological hypothesis, predicts that early sexual experience leads to sexual activity at a young age and without the cognitive propensities to manage sexuality. The data suggest that early sexual contact leads to short-term sexual encounters for women but not men. The authors state that these results are consistent with the sociological hypothesis. These results also are consistent with an evolutionary psychological hypothesis generated and tested about a decade earlier by Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper (1991).

In chapter 5, Mayhay, Laumann, and Michael investigate differences in sexual expression by sex and by race. Relative to women, men of all racial groups report that fellatio is more appealing. The authors also report a greater preference for cunnilingus among white men and women than among the members of other racial groups, including African Americans.

In chapter 6, Waite and Joyner examine sex differences in reported sexual behaviors by commitment level (as indexed by relationship status of dating, cohabitating, or married). The authors found that women's, but not men's, reports of emotional satisfaction with a partner are positively associated with relationship commitment. The authors also report that, for both sexes, sexual satisfaction increases with emotional commitment and with the sexual exclusivity of the relationship.

The third part of the book comprises six chapters investigating the relationships between health and sex. In chapter 7, Laumann, Masi, and Zuckerman examine the effects of circumcision on health. The results suggest that there are few self-reported differences in sexual health between circumcised and uncircumcised men. Circumcised and uncircumcised men do not differ in the likelihood of reporting an STD, for example. They do differ, however, in reports of various sexual acts. Circumcised men, for example, report engaging in oral and anal sex more often than uncircumcised men.

In chapter 8, Feinleib and Michael examine changes in sexual behavior in response to knowledge about AIDS. Those at risk for HIV infection do report changing their sexual behaviors (increasing condom use, for example). Those most at risk for HIV infection (young men with many sex partners), however, appear to be least likely to have changed their sexual behaviors in the period since the onset of the AIDS epidemic.

In chapter 9, Laumann and Youm investigate race-differentiated reports of the contraction of STDs. The authors highlight the inability of socioeconomic differences to account fully for race differences in STD incidence. The authors report several intriguing findings, including the finding that African Americans have higher rates of bacterial STDs, whereas Caucasian Americans have higher rates of viral STDs..Much of the data presented in this chapter contradicts previous findings. The likelihood of reporting an STD is positively related to the participant's education, for example. The authors attribute previous findings to biases in methodologies against uncovering viral STDs among the lower socioeconomic groups (viral infections remain asymptomatic longer than bacterial infections and thus are more likely to be discovered by individuals with greater access to medical care). This explanation is tenable; however, educational attainment also is associated with greater sexual opportunities (at least for males; see Perusse, 1993), and thus would increase the likelihood of contracting an STD.

In chapter 10, Laumann, Paik, and Rosen document that lower educational attainment is associated with poorer sexual experiences and with greater sexual anxiety. Also of interest is the finding that sexual dysfunction is more prevalent among younger women (compared to older women) and among older men (compared to younger men). Some reports of sexual dysfunction appear to be more common among men who report same-sex sexual activity compared to women who report same-sex sexual activity.

In chapter 11, Michael investigates several potential predictors of abortion, including parental education for women younger than age 18, church attendance, and maternal employment. The percentage of women who report having had an abortion before 18 years of age increases with parental education.

In chapter 12, Michael et al. compare and contrast U.S. and British sexuality, review the prevalence rates of STDs in the two countries, and highlight policy differences between the two countries that may help to explain differences between the two countries in STD prevalence rates. The authors report that there is greater diversity in self-reported sexual behavior and attitudes in the U.S. than in Britain. They argue that this makes umbrella campaigns less effective in the U.S. than in Britain.

In chapter 13, Michael brings together the topics addressed in previous chapters with the goal of informing public policy on sexual behavior. Michael calls attention to how much of private sexual behavior is shaped by public opinion. According to Michael, "The joys of sex we keep to ourselves; the woes of sex we proclaim publicly" (p. 471).

Shortcomings

The majority of this book is a presentation of findings, tables, and statistics. Although the authors do an excellent job of presenting the statistical methods used to reach these findings, the reader can get lost in the flurry of statistical applications and results. Readers also may find themselves scrambling to integrate findings into a theoretical framework.

An exception to this apparent disinterest in theoretical framing appears in Chapter 6, in which Waite and Joyner present an evolutionary perspective on human sexuality. Their application of evolutionary psychology is lacking in several places, however. Waite and Joyner state, for example, that men optimize their reproductive output by forming relationships with women who display cues to sexual exclusivity. Although this may be true for men seeking long-term relationships, it is less relevant for men seeking short-term sexual relationships (see Buss, 1994, for a review of this research). Readers interested in an accurate and readable presentation of modern evolutionary psychological theory and research are encouraged to consult Buss (1999).

Contributions

Throughout the book, the authors are careful to note the limitations of self-reported sexual behaviors and are quick to offer the caveat that much is not known about the validity of the self-report methodology used by the NHSLS. The NHSLS has been touted because of the nationally representative nature of the sample. So, this careful attention of the authors to recognize the limitations of this data set is a breath of fresh air.

The professional breadth represented by potential readers may best indicate the contributions of this book. Sociologists, psychologists, policy makers, and educated lay audiences will find this book interesting and helpful. The authors have taken on a daunting task of opening the eyes of researchers and policy makers to the value that research can have at a societal level.

The remarkable amount of work that went into this book is apparent. Although at times readers may get lost in the flurry of findings, careful attention to what is reported will prove valuable. We will keep this book as a key reference and we recommend to sexuality researchers, educators, and policy makers that they do the same.

REFERENCES

Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., & Draper, P. (1991). Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development, 62, 647-670.

Buss, D.M. (1994). The evolution of desire. New York: Basic Books.

Buss, D.M. (1999). Evolutionary psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Perusse, D. (1993). Cultural and reproductive success in industrial societies: Testing the relationships at proximate and ultimate levels. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 267-322.

Simpson, J.A., & Gangestad, S.W. (1991). Individual differences in socio-sexuality: Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 870-883.

Reviewed by Richard L. Michalski, Ph.D. candidate, and Todd K. Shackelford, Ph.D., Florida Atlantic University, Division of Psychology, 2912 College Avenue, Davie, FL 33314; e-mail: [e-mail] or [e-mail].