Altering the inappropriate comments of a student with multiple disabilities.

This article offers an example of how teachers may successfully use a process for addressing problem behaviors in the classroom. The process includes (1) framing critical questions, (2) collecting relevant data, (3) taking well-researched actions, and (4) reflecting on the impact of these actions. Guided by these steps, the inappropriate comments of a 16-year-old male student were expediently reduced through intervention strategies drawn from various theoretical approaches.

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The dynamic nature of the classroom and the multiplicity of needs of the learners demand flexible pedagogical practice. In order to understand and improve the quality of interactions and instruction in classroom situations, teachers may benefit from a systematic way to address the needs and plan their actions (Johnson, 2003; Stringer, 2004). By entering a cyclical process of framing critical questions, collecting relevant data, taking well-researched actions, and reflecting on the impact of these actions, a deliberate and organized approach to classroom challenges will be embraced.

The challenge in this case is Michael, a 16-year-old male student who experiences multiple disabilities, including cerebral palsy, mental retardation, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, vision problems, and behavioral difficulties. For the latter, a package of interventions was designed to address Michael's inappropriate comments. Strategies were carefully selected from four theory families: social learning, humanistic, cognitive, and behavioral approaches. Over the course of 14 days, unwanted verbalizations decreased significantly. The infusion of a myriad of individualized interventions holds the potential for producing expedient and desired outcomes.

Planning the Process: Facing the Challenge

Inappropriate social behaviors will likely preclude acceptance and integration in natural settings. The challenging behaviors in this case involved sexist and ageist comments that offended others at the school site. Actions were taken to interrupt this pattern of behavior and improve the student's social interactions for functioning in current and future environments.

Phase 1: Framing Critical Questions

Michael is a 16-year-old student participating in a segregated special education program for vocational skill training in a public, urban school. Considering his age, primary focus was placed on job skills that would equip him for competitive employment in society. Inherent in this goal is the development of appropriate social interactions. To avoid bringing negative attention to himself through the verbal derisions leveled at women and elderly individuals, research questions readily emerged. How can suitable interactions be promoted? Can Michael learn to regulate his own behavior? Will Michael be able to differentiate between socially appropriate and inappropriate behaviors?

Phase 2: Collecting Relevant Data

Insightful sources of information included interviews with the classroom teacher and occupational therapist, observations of Michael, and a review of the related literature.

Interviews and observations. The classroom teacher identified the target behavior as an interference to successful attainment of the student's Individualized Education Plan (I.E.P.) goal focusing on vocational skill development. This kind of social validation of need justifies the efforts expended in planning and implementing an intervention package (i.e., four strategies representing four theoretical approaches). In addition, input from the occupational therapist further substantiated the pattern of inappropriate comments in the context of therapy sessions. A reportedly effective strategy employed by the occupational therapist was ignoring. When applied in the classroom and vocational settings, however, data gathered during continuous observation (i.e., Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence recording) demonstrated the ineffectiveness of this strategy in these more social contexts. A tentative interpretation might be the maintenance of the misbehavior under conditions that drew attention, positive and/or negative, to Michael. Discussion with the occupational therapist generated pertinent information regarding physical limitations as well. Limited use of Michael's left hand due to cerebral palsy impacted on his ability to place food on trays prior to delivery. This frustration provoked a higher incidence of inappropriate social interactions. Specifically, over a 3-day period during the vocational training period, Michael made 25 offensive comments on average. Determining possible causation enhances success in tailoring personalized interventions.

Literature review. A review of the recent literature offered additional considerations for planning. Glenn (2002), for instance, recommended that teachers assist students in monitoring their own anger and frustration in order to prevent undesirable reactions. Knowing how to resolve intrapersonal and interpersonal problems constitutes a critical aspect of social competence (Asarnow & Callan, 1985). While the majority of children develop appropriate social skills through interactions with parents, siblings, relatives, and peers (Powless & Elliot, 1993), the myriad of Michael's disabilities necessitated direct instruction and modeling of the complex set of social skills that involves communication, problem solving, decision-making, assertion, and self-management (Asarnow & Callan, 1985).

Matson (1990) defined social skills as behaviors that are displayed in interpersonal situations for which there is a high likelihood of reinforcement and which may help the individual function in society. To orchestrate such conducive learning situations, personalized incentives may need to be incorporated. The confluence of strategies, then, that mesh direct instruction, modeling, reinforcement, self-management, and meaningful contexts may expedite social learning more than any singular endeavor. Nevertheless, the acid test of success is whether or not the learning will generalize to natural settings where there are no artificial supports (Schoen & Bullard, 2002).

Phase 3: Taking Well-Researched Actions

Social learning theory. Learning through example is the crux of social learning theory. Modeling, or observing the responses of another individual, can be as powerful as direct instruction (Grusec, 1992; Schoen, 1989). Strategies that embrace this theoretical approach range from observational learning, teacher modeling, and peer demonstration to cooperative learning arrangements, for example (Woolfolk, 1999).

For Michael, a buddy system was instituted with a competent, chronological age peer. After judicious selection and systematic instruction of the peer, the intervention commenced with Michael's buddy modeling and consequating appropriate skills and behaviors during the completion of the vocational task. Peers may provide a rate of reinforcement of 9 to 1 compared to adults, suggesting considerable density of reinforcement in the interaction (Dishion, 1999).

Humanistic theory. This learning theory focuses on engendering a student who is responsible, caring, and thoughtful. The adult exemplifies this by demonstrating values that reflect consideration, cooperation, respect, individuality, and honesty (Johnson, 1999). Consequently, the student's needs, interests, and preferences become integral to the design of the intervention package.

In keeping with this approach, Michael was administered a student interest survey. Favorite activities were readily integrated into reward systems. In addition, through daily monitoring and data recording, Michael assumed responsibility for establishing his own goals for improvement.

Cognitive theory. The cognitive theory assumes that knowledge is learned and that changes in knowledge make changes in behavior possible. Strategies that adhere to this theory emphasize verbal mediation, self-instruction, problem solving, and self-management, for instance. While these strategies are initially taught and modeled by the adult, the intent is to transfer the skill to the student for independent use.

Verbal mediation in the form of four questions was used to temper derogatory comments arising primarily out of Michael's frustration. Specifically, Michael was trained in the context of his vocational task to stop and think about his behavior. He was prompted by the following written questions: (1)Am I doing my job? (2) Am I using my manners? (3) Is what I am saying offensive to others? (4) How can I say this in a different way? Several practice sessions were held initially and periodically to enforce the process.

Behavioral theory. The behavioral theory is based on the proposition that new behaviors are learned through reinforcement that increases the likelihood of a response. Reinforcement is idiosyncratic, necessitating consideration of student preferences.

Through observation and a survey, Michael's penchant for Elvis Presley, his desire for 5-minute breaks, and his striving to earn points for the student center (e.g., school store) were revealed. A token economy was tailored around these factors. Elvis tickets were constructed and served as tokens and rewards included breaks and token exchanges at the student center.

Phase 4: Reflecting on the Impact of These Actions

The design of the intervention package used with Michael represents an eclectic combination of strategies from multiple theory families in order to expedite progress. Strategies from the social learning, humanistic, cognitive, and behavioral theories were concomitantly implemented to diminish inappropriate social interactions in the context of building vocational skills. The benefits of this concentrated effort are illustrated in Figure 1. Within the relatively short period of time of 14 days, Michael's mean baseline level of 25 derogatory comments decreased to 2 to 3 such comments during the final days of intervention. A bouncing, yet steadily descending pattern of improvement is evidenced on the graph, a pattern which is not unusual in the process of changing well-established behaviors. Reliability of the data is substantiated by interrater agreements of 100% during baseline and intervention phases, respectively.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Upon reflection, the process used to address this challenging problem was effective in producing the desired outcome; yet, many questions remain regarding the collective use of these four strategies and many conjectures revolve around future direction. In particular, will Michael be able to transfer this new learning across settings? In fading these interventions, will Michael maintain intervention levels of behavior? Would less intrusive strategies (e.g., behavior contract instead of a token economy) have been equally effective? What is the differential effectiveness of each strategy? As implemented, this is impossible to discern; however, during a fading phase, one strategy at a time might be systematically removed to note anecdotal student reactions. For the future, least to most intrusive strategies might be intermittently introduced to determine saliency in a more parsimonious intervention plan.

Concluding Remarks

Impromptu teacher responses to challenging classroom behaviors will never suffice in addressing serious classroom problems. Deliberate and thoughtful actions benefit the teacher in extending his/her knowledge base and understanding as well as the student in receiving personalized interventions that examine causal factors and best practice resolutions. Guided by on-going data collection and professional reflection, exacting refinements in interventions become attainable.

References

Asarnow, J., & Callan, J. (1985). Boys with peer adjustment problems: Social cognitive processes. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 53, 80-87.

Dishion, T. (1999). When interventions harm peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist [online]. Retrieved August 5, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://dbproxy. lasalle.edu: Webz.html

Glenn, R. (2002). Teaching kids to control anger. Educational Digest, 68(3), 18-20.

Grusec, J. (1992). Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies of Robert Sears and Albert Bandura. Developmental Psychology [online]. Retrieved October 13, 2002 from the World Wide Web http://dbproxy.lasalle. edu:2052.html

Johnson, A.P. (2003). What every teacher should know about action research. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Johnson, J.A. (1999). Foundations of American education. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Matson, J. (1990). Enhancing children's social skills: Assessment and training. New York: Perrgamon.

Powless, D., & Elliot, S. (1993). Assessment of social skills of Native American preschoolers: Teacher and parent ratings. Journal of School Psychology, 31, 293-307.

Schoen S.F. (1989). Teaching students with handicaps to learn through observation. Teaching Exceptional Children, 22(1), 18-21.

Schoen, S.F., & Bullard, M. (2002). Action research during recess: A time for children with autism to play and learn. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(1), 36-39.

Stringer, E. (2004). Action research in education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Woolfolk, A.E. (1999). Educational psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Sharon Faith Schoen, Ed.D., Associate Professor, Department of Education. Rachel Thomas, Student, Elementary/Special Education Program, La Salle University.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Sharon Faith Schoen at [e-mail].