Aligning school counseling, the changing workplace, and career development assumptions. (Special issue: career development and the changing workplace).

While navigating educational requirements and career decision making grows in complexity, assumptions about career development and the changing workplace need to be re-evaluated. Quality comprehensive school counseling programs promote self knowledge, exploration, career planning, and self-advocacy skill attainment needed for a time when "good career development requires recognizing that success and fulfillment are individually defined" (Feller, 1996b, p. 152). As a result, school counselors and school counseling programs play key roles "as schools will need to prepare students who can successfully transition to the next level, whether it is a college or university, a community college, a technical institution, or a job. Also, students will need to have the skills and competencies required for the option they choose" (Hughey & Hughey, 1999, p. 207).

While changes in work and the workplace require change in career theory and practice (Savickas, 1999), House and Martin (1998) called for school counselors to provide evidence of positive impact on student achievement. Sink (2002) posed questions about school counselor relevancy and suggested the need to ask how to improve school counseling. For those who believe that school counseling, education, and student planning are inseparable, examining long held assumptions about career development deserves attention. This seems timely as Barton (2002) reported that young people are getting no more education than their parents have, and that while college enrollment rates have been increasing, so have noncompletion rates. He also called for more avenues to success than the traditional college route. Appreciating such opportunities, this article provides an overview of the changing workplace and insights about student planning, career and technical education, and school-to-work efforts. Career development assumptions to enhance student, school counselor, and school counseling program success are offered as well.

SCHOOL COUNSELING AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT

School reform efforts over the past few decades have created many changes for school counselors. Both anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that the profession has responded successfully to multiple external forces. They include changing educational philosophies, social movements, economic trends, and legislative accountability (Borders, 2002; Herr, 2002). Historically, school counselors have served an ancillary role. They are now central to the educational mission as key information brokers regarding educational options, curricular development, and occupational opportunities (Herr).

Along with its complexity, the importance of career development on effective student planning has escalated. A growing research base underscores the positive impact of career guidance and counseling efforts, particularly those with developmentally appropriate content (increasingly referred to as career development) on successful career choices (Herr, 2000).

Yet, at a time when both the literature and business interests accentuate the need for more appropriately trained workers, students continue to make career choices based on scant information. Research illustrates a dramatic disconnection between student courses of study or job pursuits and existing job openings and business needs (Career Institute for Education and Workforce Development, 2002). Longitudinally, such disconnections often play out as dissatisfaction with career choices and outcomes. In a 1999 survey conducted by the Gallup Organization (National Career Development Association, 2000), 69 percent of working adults reported that if choosing careers again they would get more information about available options than they had previously. This survey echoed another National Career Development Association (1993) survey in which 72 percent of working adults indicated they would seek greater exploratory opportunities if they were able to start over. Moreover, as the need for high school graduates to obtain some postsecondary education to be competitive in the workplace grows (Carnevale, 2001; Carnevale & Fry, 2001; National Commission on the High School Senior Year, 2001; Scott & Bernhardt, 2000), the opportunity and real costs grow as well. School counselors frequently encourage students and their parents to explore the varieties of postsecondary opportunities as the basis of reasoned, relevant choices about college attendance and its relationship to careers. However, students and their parents continue to invest both time and money in courses of study that do not promote focused career goals or align students' skills and aspirations with employers' needs (Career Institute for Education and Workforce Development; Gray, 2000: Herman, Olivo, & Gioia, 2003; Hoyt, 2001).

Evolving technology, customer expectations, and ongoing process modifications are creating worker readiness dilemmas for employers and educators. Although employers face shortages of workers, "... far too many of those available are not prepared to perform today's job duties ... let alone the duties of the jobs that will emerge in the evolving future. [Schools] need regular briefings on what's happening in the world of work, support on curriculum design, and knowledge resources to bring the evolving designs to life" (Herman et al., 2003, p. 84).

UNCERTAIN FUTURES FOR YOUTH

Whether the hydrogen economy redistributes the world's wealth, China's cloning breakthroughs dominate the next economy, or school reform's promise to "leave no student behind" becomes reality, the vast majority of students will continue to graduate from high school and soon after enter the workforce. It is difficult to determine whether they will work for themselves within a Free Agent Nation (Pink, 2001), take advantage of The War for Talent (Michael, Handfield-Jones, & Axelrod, 2001) or benefit from an Impending Crisis: Too Many Jobs, Too Few People (Herman et al., 2003). Regardless, too few depart high school with the agility, self-reliance, critical-thinking and problem-solving capabilities as well as character traits needed to adapt to a future demanding lifelong learning and the personal accountability needed for its direction (National Commission on the High School Senior Year, 2001; Steinberg & Allen, 2002). Only time will tell how youth will experience the globalization of goods and services, deregulation, technological advances, instability created by terrorism, and "hurry sickness" described by Gleick (1999).

Currently, too many youth drop out of high school (Education Trust, 2001; Steinberg & Allen, 2002). Many others graduate, but enter college hoping time will accelerate career exploration, clarify focus, and enhance personal responsibility. Too often, dropouts and completers enter the workplace "nervously employed," misinformed about successful workforce behaviors. They subsequently flounder in the secondary labor market with little opportunity of attaining livable wages without finding a second chance via postsecondary education and/or marketable skills.

Schneider and Stevenson (1999) reported that over 90 percent of high school seniors expect to attend college and more than 70 percent expect to hold professional jobs regardless of parental income or background. School counselors hesitate to confront this "silent dream" held by parents, knowing the difficulty of offering options which suggest not attending the state university, even though career ideas and academic maturity are often incongruent (Hoyt, 2001). All too soon many students find themselves without the math or science needed in technical programs or the basic verbal, reading, and math skills necessary for postsecondary completion (Boesel & Fredland, 1999; Education Trust, 2001). Ambitions are altered as students withdraw from college, realizing their goals require more time in school and more classes than they are prepared to complete.

Alerts about the incongruence of student expectations and workplace realities, particularly for students in the academic middle have been sounded (Gray, 2000; Gray & Herr, 2000; Hoyt & Maxey, 2001). Federal initiatives such as the School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994) tried to address this misalignment, yet failed to create the philosophical shifts needed for sustainability beyond a local scale. Although preparing youth for employment, lifelong learning, and career advancement continues to receive interest, it faces many challenges and uncertainty, particularly during economic downturns or decreasing entry-level labor demands (Feller & Davies, 1999).

HOW IS THE WORKPLACE CHANGING?

Anticipating and adapting to change have increasingly become a requirement for youth to succeed as adults. Various employers and industries are fostering cultures that encourage "... entrepreneurial values and attitudes that emphasize initiative and rapid response" (Yergin & Stanislaw, 2002, p. 407). Increasingly, the "new workplace" is more dynamic and less patient with workers unable to quickly add value. Responsibility for obtaining basic skills, training, and postsecondary education needed for employment has shifted to the employee. Global competition, technical advances, and constant innovations challenge employee tenure and vertical mobility. Workers are expected to be more competent in communication, math, computer technology, and self-management, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

While opinions vary about the degree of workplace change youth will encounter, the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistic's (2002) Working in the 21st Century listed the following general trends:

1. The labor force is growing more slowly and is becoming older.

2. More women are working today than in the past.

3. Minorities are the fastest growing part of the labor force.

4. Immigrants are found at the high and low ends of the education scale.

5. Education pays.

6. Some jobs with above-average earnings do not require a bachelor's degree, but most require substantial training.

7. Workers with computer skills are in demand.

8. The l0 occupations to generate the most jobs range widely in their skill requirements.

9. Benefits account for more than one-quarter of total compensation.

10. Retirement plans are changing.

11. Workers will be supporting more Social Security recipients.

12. Years spent with an employer are down for men and up for women.

13. The temporary help industry has grown rapidly.

14. The most common alternative employment arrangement is an independent contractor.

15. Most mothers work.

16. Married couples are working longer.

17. The workplace is becoming safer.

Additional forecasts included in this report were that (a) one third of the 30 jobs projected to grow the fastest this decade are in technology; (b) half are in human health care; and (c) the rest are in education, fitness, and animal health care. Government, security, finance, and defense will continue to experience strong demand as well. The list of fastest-growing occupations reflects (a) the emergence of technology in virtually every area of life, (b) the aging of the baby boom generation, and (c) an increase in national security issues.

Recognizing the trends shaping the workplace, "... interest in career planning is at an all-time high and will become even stronger as we move into the future" (Herman et al., 2003, p. 108). Obviously, school counselors play an increasingly key role in motivating students to learn to be flexible and mobile as well as to gain the academic, occupational, and career development competencies needed for successful transition to adulthood.

THE EMERGING DIAMOND-SHAPED WORKPLACE

The emerging diamond-shaped workplace (Feller, 1996a, 1996b) rewards employees who constantly innovate, accept broader responsibilities, and demonstrate greater agility. Workers earn their value through contributions to a company's core mission rather than by accumulating degrees and rifles. Successful workers quickly recognize the need to take responsibility for ongoing learning, risk taking, and developing requisite character traits. Students striving to gain employment must have the technical skills, "intellectual capital," and personal strengths (Clifton & Anderson, 2002) critical to an organization's competitive advantage.

Even in environments where job security existed, it is rapidly becoming an anachronism. Intense global competition and time-compressed distribution and product development have transformed work roles, job rifles, and organizational structures. In an increasing global workplace, the emerging diamond-shaped workplace requires fewer managers or supervisors. Continuous quality improvement, customer satisfaction innovations, product or service differentiation, use of self-managed work teams, and "connectivity "to real time data have accelerated the pace of work. To sustain market success and achieve organizational objectives workers are rewarded for assimilating traits found in globally competitive, high-performance organizations. Alignment among training, development and organizational objectives, and top-level administrative support is required for employers seeking a competitive advantage (Simonsen, 1997).

To respond effectively to changing workplace needs, students need to understand that fewer entry-level, livable-wage jobs are available to new workers lacking basic skills. The inability to access and gain market-driven occupational proficiencies, retrieve and disperse information through technology, and remain motivated and self-directed negatively impacts all workers, particularly youth new to the workforce. Skills and competencies tied to adding value to an organization's core mission increasingly determine the quality of jobs students can expect to attain, their length of employment, and their opportunities to learn on the job. Moreover, students who understand how economic fluctuations influence employment options, job growth, and job security can better anticipate new opportunities. Those who access learning and skill development during economic downturns maintain some competitive advantage.

While the business community advocates for reforms intended to provide better trained employees, discussions about school reform is "based on narrow rhetoric rather than rigorous research." (Steinberg, 1997, p.13) As noted by Barton (2001), there are "some very critical issues involved in transforming American education, issues that are not at the center of the current educational debate and developing legislation" (p. 2).

SCHOOL REFORM: RIGOR ALONE IS NOT ENOUGH

Since the 1970s, schools have been responding to charges of "... the anonymity and lack of accountability endemic to large, impersonal and bureaucratically organized institutions, the fragmentation of a departmentalized curriculum with little discernible connection to what young people want or imagine they need to know, and the isolation of schools from the community ..." (Steinberg & Cohen, 2002, p. 1), Steinberg (1997) presented alarming findings about the factors outside of school that negatively influence school achievement. He concluded that

   No curricular overhaul, no instructional innovation,
   no change in school organization, no
   toughening of standards ... will succeed if students
   do not come to school interested in, and
   committed to, learning ... how we can reengage
   students in the business of learning, we
   need to look, not at what goes on inside the
   classroom, but at students' lives outside the
   schools' walls. Until we do just this, school
   reform will fail to improve. (p. 19)

The standards-based reform movement of the 1990s, the first significant statehouse-led effort, has led to some positive results; but primarily for those students who already identify with academic achievement goals, and chiefly in those schools with the fiscal capacity to support instructional improvements. Standards-based school reform has resulted in more challenging and relevant curricula. Unfortunately, the setting of higher standards has not alleviated the crises of growing student alienation and dropout rates common in urban high schools (Steinberg & Cohen, 2002). It now appears that "economic segregation" plagues the nation's schools, raising serious questions about the adequacy of local property tax funding without federal and state supplements. Some states are attempting system redesigns that include (a) defining the resources needed for students in low-income areas to reach state standards, (b) funneling funds to low-income schools to offset inadequate local taxes, and (c) encouraging Washington to help equalize the startling discrepancies (Symonds, 2002). Such efforts, however, are rare especially given the current federal and state deficits.

Standards-based school reform, while undeniably well-intended and strongly supported by key legislators, is not without its critics. Holding schools accountable for test scores and subsequently determining funding on the basis of their outcomes, contradicts the data about how students learn and what tests can and cannot measure. As stated by Meier (2002),

   That a standardized one-size-fits-all test could
   be invented and imposed by the state, that
   teachers could unashamedly teach to such a
   test, that all students could theoretically succeed
   at this test, and that it could be true to
   any form of serious intellectual or technical
   psychometric standards is just plain impossible.
   (p. 192)

Standards-based school reform efforts need to be joined by a growing emphasis on promoting "social capital" and creating conditions to stimulate students to use their strengths in socially relevant ways (Renzulli, 2002). Similarly, Savickas (1999) pointed out that "career development specialists focus on the nexus between person and environment, that is, the psycho-social integration of individuals into society. As such, career services benefit society as well as individuals" (p. 54). Frequently surrounded by political controversy, fostering social capital/character development has yet to be embraced by schools despite the striking evidence that investments in social capital benefit society as a whole by creating "... the values, norms, networks, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation geared toward the greater public good" (Renzulli, p. 34).

Responding through appropriate reforms to the changing world of work and the expanding expectations placed on schools is becoming increasingly important to school counselors who look at students from a developmental perspective. Educational policies will continue to guide instruction. Yet, what should guide educational policies? Steinberg and Cohen (2002) suggested that policies should presume that students can adhere to common standards, but through different pedagogies, different institutional arrangements, and in significantly different amounts of time. Supporting their philosophy, experimental programs creating smaller high schools (the "smaller is better" movement) are proving to promote higher student achievement levels, higher graduation and lower dropout rates, and they are safer than larger schools. Moreover, small schools appear to make the most difference for low-income and minority youth. A codification of the blending of youth development approaches with contextual and authentic learning (see Table 1), with smaller schools has demonstrated remarkable success in high school and postsecondary graduation rates (Steinberg & Allen, 2002).

Within the No Child Left Behind Act, (2002) signed into law by President Bush on January 8, 2002, the declaration that "all children can learn" can serve as the catalyst for meaningful school reform as well as highlight differences in students' educational needs. Agreeing that no child should be left behind is simple. Getting consensus that all students do not start with the same set of skills, do not all learn at the same level or in the same way, and do not all learn in the same amount of time remains a complex political issue. Yet, it deserves ongoing debate, timely resolution, and greater input from school counselors. As America's Children: Key Indicators of Well-Being (Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2002) illustrated, America's youth face many challenges as they negotiate school, work, and the larger community. Thoughtful, timely, and meaningful planning to help students navigate a school system continually facing reform, with aspirations to match their strengths and interests, has never been more important.

CAREER AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SHAPES STUDENT OUTCOMES

Although not always viewed as a favorable "academic" option, career and technical education (CTE) continues to demonstrate positive results in high school students' career development. Moreover, there is strong evidence that CTE can help reduce high school dropout rates through greater student engagement (Elliott, Hanser, & Gilroy, 2001; Maxwell & Rubin, 2000; Plank, 2001). Plank reported that, "... a middle-range integration of CTE and academic scheduling [three CTE credits to every four academic credits] has significant potential to reduce the likelihood of dropping out" (p. 35).

Plank's (2001) study illustrated two important points about CTE. First, CTE is worthy of consideration, particularly for at-risk students; and second, the way CTE is designed and implemented is important to its success. When examples of successful CTE are found, they are almost always in schools with "... highly talented and dedicated leadership" (Castellano, Stringfield, & Stone, 2001, p. 58). The High Schools that Work (HSTW) pioneers, attempting to make positive differences in CTE students, propose CTE curriculum with two fundamental components (Bottoms & Presson, 2000; Southern Region Education Board, 1998; Wonacott, 2002a, 2002b). Component one calls for an upgraded academic core with content and achievement standards comparable to college-prep or honors courses, including math, science, and English. The second component, the CTE major, requires four credits in a planned, coherent sequence of CTE courses supplemented by two related credits, including computer literacy skills. Further, those CTE programs that incorporate work-based learning appear to have positive effects on students' educational, attitudinal, and employment outcomes (Wonacott, 2002c).

Integrated CTE, defined as a "program" of sequential occupational courses integrated with a program of sequential academic courses, has the greatest appeal to students seeking "sub-baccalaureate" careers (Grubb, 1996). Integrated CTE has "... general occupational competency and academic mastery of the traditional academic curriculum ..." as its performance goal; and "... the transition from high school to postsecondary pre-baccalaureate technical education or full-time employment ..." as its outcome goal (Gray, 2002, p. 12). Such programs merit acknowledgement when projected careers are measured against their educational requirements. Gray (2000) illustrated well the misunderstandings between the perceptual and real needs of education and training for employment. Table 2 provides a comparison of the 1996 and projected 2006 needed levels of education and training.

With the inherent focus on matching student career exploration interests with workplace needs, CTE's role in education and career development warrants serious consideration. As stated by Harkins (2002), "CTE, with its technical focus and performance innovation outcomes mandates, is ideally positioned to lead the rest of education into new leadership and prominence" (p. 31). CTE and similar efforts to align academic achievement and workforce development offer lessons for school counselors to study as they suggest program and curriculum change which helps minimize student underachievement.

BUILDING ON LESSONS LEARNED FROM SCHOOL-TO-WORK

The School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994) followed debates between vocational preparation purists and college preparation elitists about how best to prepare students for meaningful employment. Now that federal funding for the STWOA has ended, researchers are trying to distill its impact. Hughes, Bailey, and Karp (2002) reported the following:

      Our conclusion is that the [School-to-Work
   (STW)] research so far has found generally
   positive results.... the school-to-work strategy
   does benefit students, teachers, and employers.
   Although critics of this educational
   approach feared that it would weaken academic
   achievement and divert students to lows-skilled
   jobs, truncating their opportunities for
   college and further study, the growing body of
   evaluation work--even at the most rigorous
   and definitive levels--has turned up almost no
   evidence that such fears were justified.
   (p. 273)

After reviewing more than 100 studies, Hughes et al. (2002) concluded that STW

* Supports academic achievement in a variety of ways, such as reducing the dropout rate and increasing college enrollment

* Teaches skills and abilities useful in careers and helps students think about and plan their future

* Appears to help students mature and develop psychologically

* Encourages more varied types of contact between students and adults, including teachers and worksite mentors

Moreover, teachers, students, parents, and employers remain positive about STW.

These findings are encouraging to school counselors promoting comprehensive career development programs. School-to-work/career strategies can help close the gap among misaligned career expectations, academic expectations, and successful work behaviors by:

* Expanding higher-level, basic skills acquisition for all students

* Brokering access to occupational skills within high-performance organizations that connect youth to helpful adult role models

* Accelerating career exploration programs that help students identify their strengths and interests through real-life experiences

* Expanding vertical articulation between schools and programs so competencies become as valued as seat time

* Promoting "focused effort" through personally relevant activities and contextual learning as a powerful way to create mastery and build talent

* Expanding work-based learning through community partnerships so that students can have success in real life problem-solving experiences

* Providing variation in learning opportunities so that students do not have the option "not to learn" or "underachieve"

* Utilizing technology so that all students reach higher expectations and gain expanded basic skills by making time available for learning constant and time needed to learn variable

* Taking advantage of the predictive power of hope (Snyder, Feldman, Shorey, & Rand, 2002) by helping students gain confidence about meeting the challenges of the future.

Although scholars continue to assess its influences on student career development, evidence to date indicates that the "STWOA has been a driving force in uniting state legislators, employers, schools, parents, and students to enhance student learning and prepare young people for meaningful work" (Brown, 2002, p. 3).

CAREER DEVELOPMENT ASSUMPTIONS for THE FUTURE

Changing workplace needs and employer demands require different student readiness skills and school counseling approaches. Major shifts in assumptions underlying career development need to occur to successfully transition students from high school to planned postsecondary alternatives. Table 3 presents a comparison of the traditional to emerging career development assumptions. It encapsulates (a) what the science of cognition has taught about pedagogy (Parnell, 1996), (b) the importance of education promoting "social capital" (Renzulli, 2002) and character development through "apprenticeships in democracy" (Goodlad, 2002), (c) the emergent skills for competing in the changing workplace (Feller & Davies, 1999; National Life/Work Centre, n.d.), (d) the need for "hopeful students" (Snyder et al., 2002) deciding career goals, and (e) the value of beginning career development activities early in the educational experience (Hughey & Hughey, 1999), the redefinition of school to work as a process rather than event (Herr, 1999), and a new vision for school counseling programs (ASCA, 2003).

Those advocating career preparation at the expense of student preparation for life roles and formation of social capital are advised to consider the emerging roles of all citizens and the need for sustainable and peaceful communities. Others convinced that the market-driven global economy enhanced by technology and entrepreneurship is the only way to prosperity, democracy, and security are advised to consider the vision of a civil society (Yankelovich, 1999). A civil society is committed to "the values of community, faith, responsibility, civic virtue, neighborliness, stewardship, and mutual concern for each other, values not inherent in a free-market economy" (p. 202). Further, communities need to help students develop the character needed to resist ploys leading to corporate scandals and political corruption that quickly undermine institutional trust regardless of how the workplace changes. Career plans of students need to include not only academic and technical skills, but also lessons in democracy (Goodlad, 2002), activities to promote developmental assets (Search Institute, 1997), and opportunities to learn to be self-reliant career managers (National Life/Work Centre, n.d.). While this article takes a global view of career development and the emerging assumptions to be challenged, as school counselors help students plan it is helpful to note that social advocacy "is the heritage of the profession" (Gysbers, 2001, p.103). School counselors overtly and unconsciously impact student options as a result of assumptions they hold.

CLOSING REFLECTIONS

As Posner (2002) stated, "It is a tricky business trying to guess what experiences will motivate an individual to intellectual achievement or what skills or bits of knowledge will wind up being important in a person's life" (p. 316). However, as the primary shapers and facilitators of student career development within schools, school counselors owe students their best thinking about these moving targets. For their parts, students need to maximize their strengths and demonstrate the self-discipline needed to get what they want in life and work. They need encouragement during all experiences so they can learn to evaluate options, critically evaluate decision outcomes, and assume responsibility for garnering the career development competencies needed. At the very least, school counselors need to help students learn to ask better questions and work with more realistic assumptions that reflect an understanding of the changing workplace.

It seems certain that students need to be educated for globalization, the "economic, political and cultural force that dominates the developed and developing worlds" (Nordgren, 2002, p. 318). School counselors cognizant of how the workplace is changing can better assist students in responding to the impact of globalization on their choices in the workplace and community. Instilling in students (a) creativity and other entrepreneurial skills; (b) intra and interpersonal communication and team-building skills; (c) independent thinking and problem-solving skills; (d) the imagination and flexibility to adapt to ever present change; (e) the character traits and strength to develop and act from a principled, ethical core; and (f) faith and trust in one's abilities to negotiate life's challenges appear to be the common denominators. In addition to promoting these key elements and persuasively arguing for curriculum change, school counselors and counseling programs need to focus on preparing students for a lifetime of learning and work transitions. As this takes place, greater alignment will be evident.

Table 1. The Five C's

Caring        Caring relationships that help young
              people build an attachment to the
              learning environment and provide
              them with the support they need to
              overcome obstacles

Cognitive     Cognitive challenges that engage
              young people intellectually and help
              them develop the competencies they
              will need for postsecondary success

Culture       Culture of support for effort that
              pushes young people to do their best
              work

Community     Community, contribution, voice, and
              leadership in a group that young people
              feel is worth belonging to

Connections   Connections to high-quality postsecondary
              learning and career opportunities
              through an expanding network of
              adults

Table 2. Percentage of Employment
Requiring Various Levels of Education and
Training: 1996 & 2006

                                 1996    2006

First Professional               1.3%    1.3%

Doctorate                         .8%     .8%

Master's                         1.0%    1.0%

Bachelor's & experience          6.8%    7.0%

Associate                        3.1%    3.3%

Work experience in related
occupation                       6.1%    5.8%

Long-term on-the-job training    8.3%    7.9%

Moderate on-the-job training    12.7%   12.1%

Short-term on-the-job training  40.4%   40.2%

Source: Data from Silvestri (1997) as cited in Gray,
2000, p. 23.

Table 3. Comparison of the Traditional to Emerging Career
Development Assumptions

Dimension                Traditional Assumptions

Pedagogy                 Students commit bits of knowledge to
                         memory in isolation from practical
                         application; academics are important
                         in and of themselves.

Values                   What one values is not as important
                         as ensuring a secure job with vertical
                         mobility.

Career Exploration       Either the senior year in high school
Timeframe                or first year of college is soon enough
                         to begin career discussions.

Job Longevity            Change is inevitable, BUT secure jobs
                         do exist; find companies where this
                         has proven true and stick with them;
                         rewards will follow.

Educational Contexts     School designs and instructional
                         delivery do not matter; "teach to the
                         middle" and all students will progress.
                         Seat time is the constant and learning
                         is the variable.

Career Preparation       Primary focus is on academic subjects
Components               and technical skills; students learn
                         workplace behaviors from parents
                         and/or community members and
                         integration of academic and technical
                         is not needed.

Meaningful               Students should focus on growth sectors
Employment               and choose one; know what they
                         want and where they are going, and
                         not to deviate from a plan.

Job Skills Acquisition   Learn while in school, then one's
                         career is assured; postsecondary
                         degrees are fundamental to success.

Accessing Career         Learn about careers independently;
Information              the key to success is for students to
                         learn to write their own ticket; they
                         need to make it on their own.

School Counselor Role    Focus on what school counselors do.

School to Work           School-to-work transition is the
Transitions              bridge that connects schools to
                         employers

Evaluation of School     Use graduation and college acceptance
Counseling Programs      rates, and amount of financial
                         aid awarded as success metrics.

Dimension                Emerging Assumptions

Pedagogy                 Effective teaching/learning motivates students
                         to connect knowledge content with the context
                         of application, developing and utilizing the
                         "thinking brain"; problem solving and
                         decision-making skills are promoted.

Values                   Identifying values in career planning is
                         critical; giving students the ability to set
                         valued goals, identify strategies achieve
                         goals, and the motivation to actualize goals
                         is fundamental to career success.

Career Exploration       Career development begins in elementary school
Timeframe                and continues through high school and beyond;
                         activities are developmentally appropriate.

Job Longevity            Security comes from the ability to anticipate,
                         make and manage changes; change is the only
                         constant.

Educational Contexts     Not all students learn in the same way, in the
                         same time-frame, or with the same kinds of
                         physical and emotional structures. Honor
                         differences so that learning becomes
                         the constant and time is the variable.

Career Preparation       Character development--moral, ethical,
Components               affective growth--is equally important to
                         technical skills and academic achievements;
                         schools are responsible for "apprenticeships
                         in democracy."

Meaningful               Increased emphasis on spirituality and
Employment               community in the workplace; the career of
                         choice must have personal meaning; students
                         should have ideas of what they want,
                         and be open to new information.

Job Skills Acquisition   Learning is lifelong and everywhere; acquire
                         as much from informal as formal learning;
                         explore needed education. More than half of
                         all jobs require short to moderate
                         training.

Accessing Career         Access allies and become an ally; people
Information              progress as much by whom they know, and who
                         knows them, as on what they know.

School Counselor Role    Focus on how students are different because of
                         the school counseling programs and the work of
                         the school counselor.

School to Work           School-to-work transition is strengthened
Transitions              through basic skill acquisition and career
                         development outcomes in elementary and middle
                         school, and follows non-linear events which
                         connect school to employment and workplace
                         induction.

Evaluation of School     Attention to success in completing college
Counseling Programs      semesters, amount of debt accrued,
                         satisfaction with high school transition,
                         level of voter participation, commitment to
                         creating social capital.

References

Boesel, D., & Fredland, E. (1999). College for all? Is there too much emphasis on getting a 4-year college degree? Washington, DC: National Library of Education.

Barton, R E. (2001). Facing the hard facts in educational reform. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Barton, R E. (2002). The closing of the education frontier? Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Borders, L. D. (2002). School counseling in the 21st century: Personal and professional reflections. Professional School Counseling, 5, 180-185.

Bottoms, G., & Presson, A. (2000). Using lessons learned: Improving the academic achievement of vocational students (Educational Benchmarks 2000 Series). Atlanta, GA: Southern Regional Education Board. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 451 366)

American School Counselor Association. (2003). The American school counselor association national model: A framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.

Brown, B. L. (2002). School to work after the School to Work Opportunities Act. Columbus, OH: Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. Retrieved January 30, 2003, from http://ericacve.org/mr.asp

Career Institute for Education and Workforce Development. (2002). Decisions without direction. Big Rapids, MI: Ferris State University.

Carnevale, A. R (2001, January). Help wonted ... college required. Paper presented at the 2001 Business-Education Partnerships Conference, Chicago, IL.

Carnevale, A. R, & Fry, R. A. (2001). The economic and demographic roots of education and training. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Castellano, M., Stringfield, S., & Stone, J. R., III. (2001). Career and technical education reforms and comprehensive school reforms in high schools and community colleges: Their impact on educational outcomes for at-risk youth. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, National Research Center for Career and Technical Education.

Clifton, D. O., & Anderson, E. (2002). Strengths Quest: Discover and develop your strengths in academics, career, and beyond. Washington, DC: The Gallup Organization.

Education Trust. (2001, Winter). Thinking K-16: Youth at the crossroads facing high school and beyond (Vol. 5, Issue 1). Washington DC: Author.

Elliott, M. N., Hanser, L. M., & Gilroy, C. L. (2001). Evidence of positive student outcomes in JROTC career academies. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

Feller, R.W. (1996a). The future of work. Vocational Education Journal, 71 (4), 24-27.

Feller, R. W (1996b). Redefining "career" during the work revolution. In R. Feller & G. Walz. (Ed.), Career transitions in turbulent times: Exploring work, learning and careers (pp. 143-154). Greensboro, NC: ERIC/CASS.

Feller, R.W., & Davies, T. G. (1999). Career development for all. In A. Pautler (Ed.), Workforce education:Issues for the new century (pp. 115-128). Ann Arbor, MI: Prakken.

Gleick, J. M. (1999). Faster: The acceleration of just about everything. New York: Vintage.

Goodlad, J. I. (2002). Kudzu, rabbits, and school reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(1), 16-23.

Gray, K. C. (2000). Getting teak Helping teens find their future. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Gray, K. C. (2002). The role of career and technical education in the American high school: A student-centered analysis. Pittsburgh, PA: Penn State University in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocation and Adult Education.

Gray, K. C., & Herr, E. L. (2000). Other ways to win: Creating alternatives for high school graduates (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Grubb, W. N. (1996). Working in the middle. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Gysbers, N. C. (2001). School guidance and counseling in the 21 st century: Remembering the past into the future. Professional School Counseling, 5, 96-105.

Harkins, A. M. (2002). The future of career and technical education in a continuous innovation society. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, National Career and Technical Teacher Education Institute.

Herman, R., Olivo, T., & Gioia, J. (2003). Impending crisis: Too many jobs, too few people. Winchester, VA: Oakhill Press.

Herr, E. L. (1999). Theoretical perspectives on the school-to-work transition: Reactions and recommendations. The Career Development Quarterly, 47, 359-364.

Herr, E. L. (2000, June). Perspectives on career development: The legacy of the 20th century--the innovation of the 21st. Paper presented at the meeting of the Millennium Conference of the National Career Development Association, Pittsburgh, PA.

Herr, E. L. (2002). School reform and perspectives on the role of school counselors: A century of proposals for change. Professional School Counseling, 5, 220-234.

House, R. M., & Martin, R J. (1998). Advocating for better futures for all students: A new vision for school counselors. Education, 119, 284-291.

Hoyt, K. B. (2001). Helping high school students broaden their knowledge of postsecondary education options. Professional School Counseling, 5, 6-12.

Hoyt, K., & Maxey, J. (2001). Counseling for high skills: Responding to the career needs of all students. Greensboro, NC: CAPS Publications.

Hughes, K. L., Bailey, T. R., & Karp, M. M. (2002). School-to-work: Making a difference in education. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, 272-279.

Hughey, K. R, & Hughey, J. K. (1999). Preparing students for the future: Making career development a priority. Journal of Career Development, 25, 203-216.

Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2002). America's children: Key indicators of well-being. Retrieved January 30, 2003, from http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/

Maxwell, N. L., & Rubin, V. (2000). High school career academies: A pathway to educational reform in urban school districts? Kalamazoo, MI: W. E Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.

Meier, D. (2002). Standardization versus standards. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, 190-198.

Michael, E., Handfield-Jones, H., & Axelrod, B. (2001). The war for talent. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

National Career Development Association. (1993). A summary of key findings: 1993 national survey of working America. Columbus, OH: Author.

National Career Development Association. (2000). Career connecting in a changing context: A summary of the key findings of the 1999 national survey of working America. Columbus, OH: Author.

National Life/Work Centre, Canada Career Information Partnership & Human Resources Development Canada. (n.d.). Blueprint for life/work designs. Retrieved January 30, 2003 from: http://www.blueprint4life.ca

National Commission on the High School Senior Year. (2001, October). Raising our sights: No high school senior left behind. Princeton, NJ: The Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, Stat. 1425 (2002).

Nordgren, R. D. (2002). Globalization and education: What students will need to know and be able to do in the global village. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, 318-321.

Parnell, D. (1996). Cerebral context. Vocational Education Journal, 71(3), 18-21.

Pink, D. H. (2001). Free agent nation: The future of working for yourself. New York: Warner Books.

Plank, S. (2001). Career and technical education in the balance: An analysis of high school persistence, academic achievement, and postsecondary destinations. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, National Dissemination Center for Career and Technical Education, and St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, National Research Center for Career and Technical Education.

Posner, D. (2002). Education for the 21 st century. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, 316-317.

Renzulli, J. S. (2002). Expanding the conception of giftedness to include co-cognitive traits and to promote social capital. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, 33-58.

Savickas, M. L. (1999). Career development and public policy: The role of values, theory and research. In B. Hiebert & L. Bezanson, (Eds.), Making waves: Career development and public policy: International symposium 1999 papers, proceedings and strategies (pp. 52-68). Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Career Development Foundation.

Schneider, B., & Stevenson, D. (1999). The ambitious generation: America's teen-agers--motivated but directionless. New Haven: Yale University Press.

School to Work Act of 1994, Pub L. No. 103-239,108 Stat. 568 (1994).

Scott, M. A., & Bernhardt, A. (2000, February). Pathways to Educational Attainment: Their effect on early career development, IEE Brief, 28,1-4.

Search Institute. (1997). The asset approach: Giving kids what they need to succeed. Minneapolis, MN: Author.

Simonsen, R (1997). Promoting a development culture in your organization: Using career development as a change agent. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

Sink, C. A. (2002). In search of the profession's finest hour: A critique of four views of the 21 st century school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 5, 156-163.

Southern Region Education Board. (1998). High schools that work: Accelerating progress toward higher achievement for all students. Atlanta: Author.

Snyder, C. R., Feldman, D. B., Shorey, H. S., & Rand, K. L. (2002). Hopeful choices: A school counselor's guide to the hope theory. Professional School Counseling, 5, 298-307.

Steinberg, A., & Allen, L. (2002). From large to small: Strategies for personalizing the high school. Boston: Jobs for the Future.

Steinberg, A., & Cohen, M. (2002, March 13). Rigor and relevance. Education Week, p. 26.

Steinberg, L. (1997). Beyond the classroom: Why school reform has failed and what parents need to do. New York: Touchstone.

Symonds, W. C. (2002, October 14). Closing the school gap. Business Week, pp. 124-125.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2002). Working in the 21st century. Retrieved January 30, 2003, from http://www.bls.gov/pub/working/home.htm

Wonacott, M. E. (2002a). Dropouts and career and technical education. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, National Career and Technical Teacher Education Institute.

Wonacott, M. E. (2002b). High schools that work: Best practices for CTE (Practice Application Brief No. 19). Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career and Vocational Education.

Wonacott, M. E. (2002c). The impact of work-based learning on students. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career and Vocational Education. (ERIC Digest No. 242)

Yergin, D., & Stanislaw, J. (2002). The commanding heights: The battle for the world economy. New York: Touchstone.

Yankelovich, D. (1999). The magic of dialogue: Transforming conflict into cooperation. New York: Touchstone.

Rich W. Feller, Ph.D., is professor of Counseling and Career Development, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. E-mail: [e-mail]