African-American students' perceptions of school success. (The scholarship of teaching and learning).

Abstract

Six African-American high school seniors were interviewed regarding their perceptions of factors that impact their school success. A qualitative analysis revealed that students perceived that six major factors influence success for African-American students. Based on frequencies of the categories mentioned, the issues were ranked in order of importance. The following issues were uncovered through the analysis of the students' responses and are listed in order of importance: 1) initiative; 2) self-image; 3) family; 4) teachers; 5) labeling/racism; and 6) participation in school programs. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Ethnic minority status has been shown to place a student at risk for school failure (Pungello, Kupersmidt, Burchinal, & Patterson, 1996). There is substantial evidence that African-American students consistently score below Euro-American students on standardized test scores. Educators often overlook the impact of school as a social context on student behavior. Factors both within and outside of the school setting, as well as individual characteristics, impact students' capacity to succeed in school Through relationships generated both within and outside of school, students' attitudes toward learning are formulated.

Research has shown that teachers often have lower expectations for minority students, and African-American students are aware of these low expectations (Murdock, 1999). Furthermore, perceived lowered expectations are reportedly related to lack of engagement in school (Murdock). Despite these biases and students' awareness of teachers' biases, many minority students flourish and succeed within a context that threatens the success of their peers.

Protective factors that foster success have been identified in the literature. Protective factors are those influences that "... modify, ameliorate, or alter a person's response to some environmental hazard that predisposes to a maladaptive outcome" (Rutter, 1985, p. 600). Cowen and Work (1988) identified three clusters of protective factors: (1) personal predispositions (positive disposition, autonomy, social responsiveness), (2) warm, supportive family environment, and (3) extrafamilial peer and adult support resources.

Personal Characteristics

Wolin and Wolin (1993) describe seven different resiliencies that help individuals surmount obstacles they face. Initiative refers to the person's ability to initiate action to alter their life course. Interpersonal relationships is another resiliency, and it reflects the individual's ability to establish close ties with people who have the capacity to foster their growth. Other resiliencies include independence, insight (knowing that one's life can improve and challenging the current conditions), creativity, morality, and humor. Thus, individuals who are able to persevere despite adversity possess some of the resiliencies described by the Wolins.

Families

Family relationships have been shown to foster school success. For instance, good parent-child relationships, a close bond with at least one caregiver who supports the child, parents who have higher expectations for their child's education, and having ample learning material in the home are all important factors (Garmezy, 1981; McMillan & Reed, 1994; Rosenfeld, Richman, & Bowen, 1998). Despite their lower success rates in school, many African-American families still value education. However, they often experience a sense of futility regarding the educational system their children attend (Wilson, Cooke, & Arrington, 1997). For example, McGinty (1999) found that successful students had parents who valued education despite their lack of involvement in the school system. Thus, we cannot assume that parents devalue education just because they are not actively involved in the school. Therefore, it is erroneous to blame the parents/families for the underachievement of African-American students.

Family support does not necessarily mean that children must have a traditional family structure. Garmezy (1981) found that an intact family is not the only predictor of high-achievement among disadvantaged children. A good relationship with at least one adult can help offset other risk factors. For example, a parent's concern with the child's education, recognition of the child's interests, and the home environment all contribute to academic success.

Schools and Teachers

In addition to families, extrafamilial social supports have been found to be related to positive outcomes for children at risk. Sources of support can be found within the school system. Luthar and Zigler (1991) found that resilient children had at least one teacher who had provided support and encouragement. According to McGinty (1999), parents are not always aware of how to provide advice on educational matters, so teachers serve as mentors in academic domains.

According to Wall, Covell, and Macintyre (1999), teacher support is beneficial to adolescents' achievement aspirations. When there is not a supportive home environment, a positive school environment can offset the negative effects. In the McGinty (1999) study, in which success was defined solely by GPA, success was only possible because of the flexibility of the teachers. For example, teachers allowed students to make up missed exams, and they excused them for missing many classes. McGinty suggests that teachers need to understand that sometimes students need to work outside of school and therefore are pressed to turn in assignments on time.

School climate also impacts students' academic and behavioral outcomes. Social interactions within the school context mediate the manifestation of behavior problems in the school setting. Thus, "Schools may serve as either risk factors ... or as protective factors ..." (Baker, 1998). Students who like school display more prosocial behaviors than do students who dislike school. Satisfaction with school is influenced by perceptions of school as a supportive community. At-risk youth report that teachers have low expectations of them and dislike them which leads to alienation and students' negative responses to teachers (Murdock, 1999). Murdock reported that students' perceptions of teacher support was the most consistent predictor of students' behaviors, and these perceptions were better predictors than socioeconomic status. In particular, students' perceptions of teachers' disinterest and criticism, as well as teacher expectations, led to feelings of alienation.

In addition to the influence of the formal classroom, extracurricular activities also seem to be important for success. McGinty (1999) found that club membership was an indicator of school success. Students were involved in a variety of activities, thus participation in general seemed to be pertinent for student achievement. The number of activities also plays an important role. Mahoney and Cairns (1997) found that no at-risk students who participated in two or more activities dropped out of school.

Although there is ample evidence that delineates the protective factors for at-risk students, there is scarce literature that specifically targets students' own perceptions of factors that contribute to their success. In addition, very few studies have specifically targeted African-American high school students. African-American students are particularly important to examine due to their relatively high drop out rate. The National Center for Educational Statistics (1999) reported that 13.8% of African-Americans dropped out of high school, compared to 7.7% of Euro-Americans. The purpose of the present study was to investigate students' perceptions of factors that impact their success. By utilizing qualitative methods, the researchers sought further explanation and insight about the underlying contributions to African-American students' school success.

Methods

This study examined African-American students' perceptions of the factors that promoted or inhibited their school success. The participants consisted of six African-American seniors (three female, three male) in one southcentral metropolitan area. Although the sample size was small, the purpose of this study was to uncover issues that need further investigation; generalization was not a focus of this study. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted in the fall. Interview questions were open-ended and focused on students' perceptions of the factors that contribute to success. Interviewers had no information about which students were successful.

A qualitative design was employed, and interview questions were transcribed and coded using a recursive analysis; general themes were uncovered, and then transcribed interviews were coded according to the uncovered themes. After fine-tuning the coding scheme, final pattern codes were established. After major categories were finalized, two independent coders rated each transcript to verify reliability of the coding manual. Subsequently, all data were coded according to the categories in the coding manual, and frequencies were recorded. Because only six subjects were interviewed, frequencies were based on the number of times a category was mentioned overall, rather than the number of students who mentioned the category.

Results

Several common factors emerged in this study, and no differences in responses were found across gender. Almost all students identified that the following factors impact success for African-American students: 1) initiative, 2) self-image, 3) family, 4) teachers, 5) labeling/racism, and 6) participation in school programs. Three other categories also emerged but were noted by only two or three participants; those categories include role models, church membership, and peers.

Initiative. Initiative was the most cited factor (mentioned 39 times overall), and it was mentioned by all students. Initiative is defined as hard work, being a responsible student, seeking extra help, and having future plans and goals. For example, one student stated that what makes him successful is that, "Basically, I work harder ... I guess I plan ahead. It's my determination."

Self-Image. Self-image was the second most reported factor (mentioned 36 times) perceived to affect success, and it was mentioned by five of the students. Self-image is defined as students' internal feelings, self-esteem, knowing how to act in public, and personal attitude. One student (who was the cheerleading captain) mentioned that she is aware of how others perceive her when she's out in public For example, she stated, "The way I carry myself; I'm not real loud ... I just carry myself where people will know ... that's Renee ... she's a hard worker; she's a cheerleader. Another student stated, "No matter how many people believe in you, if you don't believe in yourself, you're gone." The first two factors pertain to personal attributes, which were the most frequently cited reasons attributed to success. The next two factors pertain to social supports.

Families. Although family was not the most frequently mentioned variable, it was identified by all participants as significant. Although some students did not repeatedly discuss the issue (mentioned 27 times), they all recognized the importance of family. For example, one student stated that one thing she has that unsuccessful students do not have is, "... parents that care, that want you to do your best, ... that maybe push you if you don't." One of the students said, "My mom says ... `you'll be the first one out of this house to graduate.' It's going to be great. Everybody is like counting on me."

Teachers. Besides family, teachers were perceived to be the other social support system that impacted student success. Five students recognized that teachers influenced success (mentioned 27 times overall). Teachers' attitudes, their willingness to offer help, and the time they take with students were all important factors. One of the students said, "A teacher can make a real big difference, cause I think that anyone wants somebody to think good of them." Another student stated that a good teacher can alter the motivation of students who previously had poor attitudes toward school.

Labeling/Racism. Although students mentioned the positive effects of good teachers, four of the students identified inequitable treatment and discriminatory practices as issues that might inhibit school success for African-American students. This issue was mentioned 17 times by the four students. One student's remarks illustrate her perceptions of racism in her school. She stated, "... I don't mean this against anyone, but a lot of people are trying to label the black kids by putting them in Special Ed, Resource ... a lot of those students don't need to be in there. A lot of them are just in there ... because the teacher told them, `you are not smart enough to be in here.'" She went on to state that, "... some of the tests that they give us are not for us, you know ... Stanford Achievement Tests, those are not made for the black students."

Participation in School Programs. Although extracurricular involvement was infrequently discussed overall, five of the students mentioned it at least once. One student mentioned that the majority of clubs are dominated by white students which suggests that black students are not as connected to school. Yet, these students identified participation as a contributor to success.

Discussion

All students recognized the value of a social support network, and the majority of them identified both teachers and family members as important for success. Two students were convinced that social support is the most important factor that differentiates successful and unsuccessful students. Two students said that all it would take for a student to be successful is for a teacher to show that he/she cares. This is consistent with the majority of the literature which states that a positive relationship with a significant adult is the most common denominator among at-risk students who succeed (Garmezy, 1981).

McGinty (1999) reported that the resilient adolescent females in her study all had parents who valued education and who encouraged them. In addition, those adolescents sought out sources of support at school. In the present study, African-American students identified several sources of support, and they mentioned that the unsuccessful African-American students did not have families or other individuals who supported and encouraged them.

Most students recognized teachers as an important factor for doing well in school. They mentioned several good teachers who went beyond their roles as teachers to help students. Unfortunately, the majority of the students also reported instances of teacher bias, discrimination, and favoritism.

Participation in extracurricular activities was perceived by all students to positively impact school success. Mahoney and Cairns (1997) had found that high-risk students who did not join school clubs were at an extreme disadvantage and significantly more likely to drop out of school. These findings are consistent with research by Tinto (1993) and other researchers (Zea, Reisen, Beil, & Caplan, 1997) who have demonstrated the impact of social integration on retention for college students.

Finally, self-image seems to be an important factor for these adolescents. Perhaps in this context in which unequal treatment is perceived, a strong sense of self is needed to persevere. Some students recognized the discriminative practice of misplacing African-American students in remedial programs. Surprisingly, many African-American students achieved great success despite the realization that the authority figures at their school exercised inequitable treatment of students.

Students repeatedly remarked on the need to work hard and take control. They clearly recognized that motivation was the key to success. Yet, this study uncovered other factors related to motivation .. In particular, interpersonal relationships both within and outside of school were seen as important influences on success. Educators have the capacity to make a significant impact on African-American students. Teachers must examine their own biases and attempt to eradicate them if we are ever to achieve equality in education. Ostensibly, teacher workshops should focus more on sensitivity training regarding multicultural issues. Future research should investigate the relationship between perceptions of discrimination, self-image, and student motivation.

References

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Terri A. Forsbach, Arkansas State University Karen L. Yanowitz, Arkansas State University Thomas Fiala, Arkansas State University

Terri has a Ph.D. in Educational Psychology and is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology & Counseling. Karen has a Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology and is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology & Counseling. Thomas has a Ph.D. in Foundations of Education and is an Assistant Professor in the Elementary Education Department.