Adult education's contributions to society evolve as our needs change.

Public adult education in California is celebrating its 150-year anniversary. The memoirs of John Swett, California's fourth superintendent of public instruction, record that in 1856 he taught an evening class sponsored by the San Francisco Board of Education in the basement of St. Mary's Cathedral. From that first classroom, a multiple-provider system has grown that meets the challenges and serves the needs of more than 2 million adults every year.

Early years of adult education

The early evening classes, like those today, consisted largely of immigrants--in those days, Irish, Italians and Chinese. Subjects included citizenship and elementary subjects. John Swett convinced the San Francisco Board of Education to make the school tuition-free, beginning another enduring tradition.

In the last half of the century, evening schools were established in other large cities, such as Sacramento, Oakland, San Jose and Los Angeles. Courses included vocational and academic subjects like arithmetic, algebra, grammar and bookkeeping. By the turn of the century, evening schools existed all over the state as what were then called "Americanization" centers.

In the early years of the 20th century, community demand for adult education resulted in dramatic growth, facilitated by successful court tests and favorable legislation. In 1907 the Legislature authorized high schools to have postgraduate courses, allowing the formation of the public junior college.

In 1926, the first State Plan for Adult Education was presented at a conference at Asilomar. The plan marked a change in the official goal of adult education from removing educational handicaps to organizing resources to improve the community.

In 1921, legislation was passed requiring that Americanization classes be formed when requested by 25 or more people. This mandate for adult education is still a part of the California Education Code. Also in the 1920s, adult education progressed to a means of meeting the educational needs of all adults. Forums on current topics in government, politics, literature and science became a part of adult education programs.

Depression 1930s and wartime 1940s

The decade of the 1930s and the Great Depression saw setbacks when many schools for adults were temporarily closed and programs were curtailed in others.

By 1933, California adult education, in its typical response to national social issues, was involved in Works Progress Administration (WPA)-funded programs, including literacy, vocational training and parent education. Teachers were sent to Civilian Conservation Corps camps, where they organized evening high schools. Adult education continued to grow, and by the end of the decade, one in 10 California adults participated in some type of adult education class.

During World War II California adult education responded to the request of the federal government to train people for work in the defense program. From 1940 to 1945, nearly 1 million California workers were trained in defense classes.

Classes included pre-employment training for work in factories, farms and offices; civilian defense and first aid classes; and military services training programs such as flying, clerical support, truck driving and maintenance.

Fabulous 1950s

The 1950s saw the development of modern adult education programs governed by the Education Code. A State Advisory Committee on Adult Education coordinated the programs offered to adults by 261 high school adult education programs and 45 junior colleges. Adult programs were funded about 45 percent by state apportionment, determined on the basis of average daily attendance, and about 55 percent by local support, based on assessed property evaluation.

There were funding inequities. The apportionment for adult classes in high schools was lower than identical classes in junior colleges. Local support for classes in poor districts was lower than in rich districts. By the mid-1950s, nearly a million students per year enrolled in a wide range of classes.

New federal role in the 1960s

In the 1960s, the federal role in adult education leadership expanded, and states received money to give educational opportunity to the disadvantaged. The Adult Basic Education Program was established in Title IIB of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The federal Adult Education Act was passed in 1966, and adult education delivery systems were established in all states.

During the 1960s, vocational education, both in California and the nation, grew considerably. Federal legislation included the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 and the Vocational Education Act of 1963. In California, Regional Occupational Centers and Regional Occupational Programs were established in 1965.

In the 1960s, the governance of the junior colleges transitioned from the State Department of Education to a new Board of Governors of the Junior Colleges. The 1960 Donohoe Act implemented the California Master Plan for Higher Education. Junior colleges were recognized as a third segment of postsecondary education with the state colleges and universities. In 1963, all statutes dealing with junior colleges were placed in a separate section of the Education Code. Reference to adult education remained in the public school section.

The Ed Code gave school districts responsibility for "adult basic education" and gave colleges responsibility for postsecondary courses. The courses for which school districts had primary responsibility included adult basic education, high school subjects, parent education, civic education and vocational/occupational programs.

Governance/funding issues in the 1970s

In 1967, the Stiern Act established the Board of Governors of the California Junior Colleges, which were mostly called community colleges by 1970. In some communities, there was discussion about the appropriate segment to manage adult education. The college argument was that the students were adults, while the school district argument was that instruction was below a college level. In 1972, SB 94 provided that to offer noncredit instruction, community colleges were required to have a formal agreement with the public school district.

In some communities, school districts gave up their rights to the programs and the colleges became the sole providers. In other communities, there was competition between segments for the programs that were viewed as a financial asset.

Colleges responsible for adult education typically had two divisions, a college division and an adult and continuing education division. The Department of Education maintained jurisdiction for federal adult education funds allocated to non credit programs in community colleges.

In 1978, California voters passed Proposition 13, which immediately reduced property taxes by more than 50 percent. The result was a restructuring of education funding in California. Adult education funding was folded into district block grants and programming suffered a corresponding 50 percent drop.

Legislation passed in 1979 reestablished adult school revenue limits, but reduced the adult education program areas that received state apportionment from 16 to the current 10. Revenue limits were further controlled by growth caps and cost-of-living formulas. Arts, music, crafts, drama, foreign languages, forums and civic education are now fee-based.

The end of the Vietnam War in 1975 led to a wave of Southeast Asian refugees needing educational services. Nearly one-third of all of the refugees ended up in California, heavily impacting ESL and vocational classes by the late 1970s. Studies confirmed that one out of five adults lacked basic skill competencies. California educators became involved with the national competency-based education movement that emphasized functional literacy, high school certification, consumer awareness and employability.

An Adult Education Policy Commission was established by the Legislature to review the delineation of functions policy and to equalize revenue and expenditure for adult education. The need for adult education programs exceeded the capacity of all of the available providers during this period; the governance issues were not settled, and the status quo continued. Resulting legislation funded noncredit programs at a reduced level at community colleges.

Strategic planning in the 1980s

Federal legislation affecting California adult education in the mid-1980s included the Job Training Partnership Act; the JOBS program targeting welfare recipients; and the Immigration Reform and Control Act.

More than 50 percent of amnesty recipients nationwide lived in California. Existing ESL programs were heavily impacted, many tripling in size.

In response to the perceived chaos in California education funding and concerns about quality, Proposition 98 was approved by California voters. It set a minimum funding level for education and emphasized accountability. In this climate, the Strategic Plan for California Adult Education for the 21st Century was developed. Four goals were identified: improving access to users, accountability, program quality and responsiveness, and planning and coordination.

California adult education in the 1980s was faced with responding to the national need for preparing disadvantaged and limited-English-proficient workers for a changing workplace impacted by technology. Amendments to the Federal Adult Ed Act emphasized newly identified types of literacy--workplace literacy and family literacy.

Strategies to improve literacy in the 1990s

During the 1990s, federal adult education initiatives focused on the attack on illiteracy called for by the national education goals and implemented in the National Literacy Act of 1991. Studies had indicated that 25 percent of California adults performed at the lowest functional literacy level.

In the late 1990s, the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act, Title II of the Workforce Investment Act, continued supplemental funding to states for adult education related to family, community and work.

In 1992 a three-bill package of adult education reform bills passed the California Legislature. Provisions included the first start-up of new adult schools since the passage of Proposition 13 and a fiscal framework to alleviate inequalities in apportionment.

Welfare reform law with an education component was implemented in California as CalWORKs. California also established a performance-based accountability system to develop data elements, standards, and measure the effectiveness of education and training programs.

In the 1990s, the Department of Education used its federal supplemental funding to provide statewide support projects for the use of communication systems, for the integration of technology into instruction, and for student assessment and program evaluation. Innovative distance learning programs were piloted. Curriculum projects to meet the needs of California's diverse learners were developed and tested.

Services to older adults doubled in the period as Californians lived longer. Family literacy programming was given impetus by voter approval of Proposition 227, which dismantled "bilingual education" and funded instead a program called CBET. Community-Based English Tutoring programs provide English instruction to parents who pledge to tutor English learners in the public schools.

Accountability in the 21st century

During the late 1990s policymakers and the general public had concerns about the quality and outcomes of educational programs. The interest in the comparison of programs and the return on public investment led to federal and state legislation that increased accountability requirements for local programs.

As the California adult education system evolves, educators and legislators continue to discuss the issues resulting from a system of delivering adult education via a multiple-provider system headed by its public adult schools and community colleges.

References

West, Linda L. (2005). Meeting the challenge: a history of adult education in California from the beginnings to the twenty-first century. California Department of Education. Sacramento.

West, Linda L. (2005). California adult education: one hundred fifty years. [Video.] Outreach and Technical Assistance Network, Sacramento County Office of Education.

Linda L. West is the archives and information specialist for the Outreach and Technical Assistance Network at the Sacramento County Office of Education.