Activity Status, Life Satisfaction and Perceived Productivity for Young Adults with Developmental Disabilities.As young adults with disabilities age out of public school and related service programs, their transition to a developmentally appropriate activity status, such as employment or further schooling, may be difficult to achieve (White, 1997). Population data on school drop-out rates of special education students versus other students, and on employment rates of young adults with and without disabilities, consistently show large disparities that document the difficulty of the transition process (Ireys, Salkever, Kolodner, & Bijur, 1996; Wagner & Blackorby, 1996;). A variety of activity status outcomes of the transition process are possible. Paid employment outcomes vary widely in hours of work, level of community integration, and job content, and these variations may have implications for continued personal development. Young adults often report combinations of activities, such as schooling and volunteer work, or paid employment and housework. Thus a simple dichotomy di·chot·o·my n. pl. di·chot·o·mies 1. Division into two usually contradictory parts or opinions: "the dichotomy of the one and the many" Louis Auchincloss. of employed vs. not employed is a very incomplete description of this variety of activity status outcomes, and a number of writers have emphasized the value of a broader range of outcome measures (Fairweather & Shaver, 1990; Halpern, 1985; Halpern, Yovanoff, Doren & Benz, 1995). There is also a growing emphasis, in the literatures on transition and program evaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. , on the importance of assessing outcomes with measures that relate to quality of life (Borthwick-Duffy, 1996; Chubon, 1987; Dennis, Williams, Giangreco & Cloninger, 1993; Halpern, 1993; Landesman, 1986; Vandergriff & Chubon, 1994). Three broad perspectives on quality of life have been identified (Dennis, Williams, Giangreco & Cloninger, 1993; Schalock, 1996), based on psychological indicators, social indicators, and goodness-of-fit indicators. Comprehensive quality-of-life measures, which combine several or all of these three perspectives, have been applied in empirical research Noun 1. empirical research - an empirical search for knowledge inquiry, research, enquiry - a search for knowledge; "their pottery deserves more research than it has received" (e.g., Schalock, Keith, Hoffman, & Karan, 1989). Psychological indicators of quality of life (i.e., indicators based on subjective feelings and perceptions) are particularly interesting for several reasons. First, their use emphasizes the importance of the individual's own evaluation of their situation and thus reinforces the priority of self-determination self-determination Process by which a group of people, usually possessing a degree of political consciousness, form their own state and government. The idea evolved as a byproduct of nationalism. as a societal so·ci·e·tal adj. Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society. so·ci  e·tal·ly adv.Adj. goal. Second, the strong relationships between quality of life measures, perceived self-worth, and psychological problems such as depression have been widely recognized in empirical studies Empirical studies in social sciences are when the research ends are based on evidence and not just theory. This is done to comply with the scientific method that asserts the objective discovery of knowledge based on verifiable facts of evidence. (Lehman, 1983; Yesavage, et al., 1983; Link et al., 1993; Pyne et al., 1997; Skinner Skin·ner , B(urrhus) F(rederick) 1904-1990. American psychologist. A leading behaviorist, Skinner influenced the fields of psychology and education with his theories of stimulus-response behavior. et al., 1999). Third, unlike social-indicator measures that simply add in employment status as one component of an overall quality of life score, psychological measures are not necessarily related to any particular activity status outcome as a result of simple arithmetic. The previous empirical literature relating activity status to psychological indicators of quality of life, however, is very sparse sparse - A sparse matrix (or vector, or array) is one in which most of the elements are zero. If storage space is more important than access speed, it may be preferable to store a sparse matrix as a list of (index, value) pairs or use some kind of hash scheme or associative memory. . (For a recent contribution and references to other studies, see Clayton and Chubon (1994).) Additional empirical evidence of this relationship can inform future efforts to assess a broad range of activity status outcomes, and to evaluate transition service programs that impact on these outcomes. The present study uses data from a large national survey of persons with developmental disabilities developmental disabilities (DD), n.pl the pathologic conditions that have their origin in the embryology and growth and development of an individual. DDs usually appear clinically before 18 years of age. to derive empirical evidence on the links between activity status and psychological quality-of-life measures. It focuses specifically on respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. in the age range from 16 to 27. The indicators of activity status include paid employment, housework, schooling, volunteer work, and idleness IDLENESS. The refusal or neglect to engage in any lawful employment, in order to gain a livelihood. 2. The vagrant act of 17 G. II. c. 5, which, with some modifications, has been adopted, in perhaps most of the states, describes idle persons to be those who, (defined as the absence of all the activities just noted). Quality of life measures describe respondents' perceptions about life satisfaction and their own productivity. The specific research questions addressed are the following: 1. Are differences in activity status related to significant differences in self-perceived quality of life and self-perceived productivity? 2. Relative to idleness, do activity status outcomes other than paid employment have a positive impact on self-perceived quality of life and self-perceived productivity? 3. How do the magnitudes of these positive impacts compare among different activity status outcomes (e.g., paid employment versus volunteer work)? Methods Statistical regression Noun 1. statistical regression - the relation between selected values of x and observed values of y (from which the most probable value of y can be predicted for any value of x) regression toward the mean, simple regression, regression analyses are used to measure relationships between perceived quality of life and activity status while controlling for other respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. characteristics. These other respondent characteristics include specific types of disabilities, needs for assistance in major life activities, independence in choice or participation in life activities, and demographic characteristics. Detailed information on the study participants, data, and analysis methods are described below. Data Source and Study Participants The present study analyzes data originally collected in the 1990 National Consumer Survey (NCS (Network Call Signaling) CableLabs version of MGCP. See MGCP/MEGACO. NCS - Network Computing System: Apollo's RPC system used by DEC and Hewlett-Packard.The protocol has been adopted by OSF. ) of People with Developmental Disabilities and Their Families (Temple University, 1990). Procedures and questionnaires for the survey were developed jointly by the National Association of Developmental Disabilities Councils and Temple University. The actual drawing of samples and administration of interviews was conducted in individual states under the auspices aus·pi·ces 1 n. Plural of auspex. auspices Noun, pl under the auspices of with the support and approval of [Latin auspicium augury from birds] Noun of each state's Developmental Disabilities (DD) Council. Samples of potential respondents for the NCS were drawn within each state from lists of DD service recipients and membership lists of consumer support and advocacy organizations. Samples were drawn to match a pre-determined distribution of persons with developmental disabilities by age and type of disability based on estimates from national data sources. Eligible survey respondents were persons with a developmental disability developmental disability n. A cognitive, emotional, or physical impairment, especially one related to abnormal sensory or motor development, that appears in infancy or childhood and involves a failure or delay in progressing through the normal , defined as "A severe chronic disability, which began before the age of 22 and which (for persons over 18) results in substantial functional limitations in three or more of the following areas of major life activities: (i) self-care self-care n. The care of oneself without medical, professional, or other assistance or oversight. , (ii) receptive receptive /re·cep·tive/ (re-cep´tiv) capable of receiving or of responding to a stimulus. and expressive language, (iii) learning, (iv) mobility, (v) self-direction, (vi) capacity for independent living, and (vii) economic self-sufficiency" (Temple University, 1990, p.29). Substantial limitations in at least two of items (i)-(v) were required for persons under age 18. Persons drawn in the sampling process were contacted by mail, and those returning consent forms were screened for eligibility via a brief telephone interview. Eligible respondents were interviewed in person. The interviewing process resulted in 13,075 completed interviews available for analysis. Tabulations of these data indicated that the distribution of respondents by age group and disability group matched closely the target national distribution (Temple University, 1990, pp. 24-28). As a result, the national study directors concluded that "the national sample ... should be considered ... an excellent cross-section of people who meet the functional definition of developmental disability" (Temple University, 1990, p. 26). Note, however, that DD councils in a small number of states deviated from national procedure guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. or used substitute survey instruments. Consequently, in the present study no usable USable is a special idea contest to transfer US American ideas into practice in Germany. USable is initiated by the German Körber-Stiftung (foundation Körber). It is doted with 150,000 Euro and awarded every two years. data were available from Delaware, Iowa Delaware is a city in Delaware County, Iowa, United States. The population was 188 at the 2000 census. Geography Delaware is located at (42.473959, -91.342283)GR1. , Kansas, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , and Oregon Oregon, city, United States Oregon, city (1990 pop. 18,334), Lucas co., NW Ohio, a suburb adjacent to Toledo, on Lake Erie; inc. 1958. It is a port with railroad-owned and -operated docks. The city has industries producing oil, chemicals, and metal products. . Moreover, while the data on respondents' age and disability type argue for the representativeness of the NCS, this can not be guaranteed in the absence of a complete nationally-representative sampling frame of all persons with developmental disabilities (Wehmeyer & Metzler, 1995). On the other hand, the NCS is by far the largest and richest database available on persons with developmental disabilities in the U.S. Detailed data from the NCS have been published on work status, residential situation, satisfaction with services, independence, and community integration (Jaskulski, Metzler & Zierman, 1990, pp. 7-11; Temple University, 1990, pp. 29-98). The NCS has also been used for several analyses relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc self-determination (Wehmeyer & Metzler, 1995) and access to vocational services (Salkever, 1994; Salkever & Domino, 1996). Participant Characteristics Since the focus of the study is on young adults, this analysis was restricted to the 3,856 respondents in the age range from 16 to 27 years old. The average respondent's age was 21.79 years, and about 88% were 18 or older. Every region of the country is represented though the absence of some large states from the data reduced the relative weight of some regions (Mid-Atlantic, North Central, Pacific). Almost 44% of respondents were female and very few respondents were married. Respondents reported specific medical diagnoses or descriptions for their disabilities based on a check-list included in the survey instrument. More than 60% reported mental retardation mental retardation, below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. ; 47.1% reported this as the primary medical diagnosis or description for their disability. Speech/language impairment Impairment 1. A reduction in a company's stated capital. 2. The total capital that is less than the par value of the company's capital stock. Notes: 1. This is usually reduced because of poorly estimated losses or gains. 2. was reported by 27% of respondents, but only 0.5% reported that as a primary condition. Of the remaining conditions, epilepsy epilepsy, a chronic disorder of cerebral function characterized by periodic convulsive seizures. There are many conditions that have epileptic seizures. Sudden discharge of excess electrical activity, which can be either generalized (involving many areas of cells in (19.37%), cerebral palsy cerebral palsy (sərē`brəl pôl`zē), disability caused by brain damage before or during birth or in the first years, resulting in a loss of voluntary muscular control and coordination. (18.46%), orthopedic orthopedic /or·tho·pe·dic/ (-pe´dik) pertaining to the correction of deformities of the musculoskeletal system; pertaining to orthopedics. impairments (12.03%), and emotional disorders emotional disorder n. An emotional illness. emotional disorder Emotional disability Psychiatry Behavior, emotional, and/or social impairment exhibited by a child or adolescent that consequently disrupts the child's or (11.23%) were the most prevalent. NCS data on the level of need for assistance in the seven major life activities (listed above) showed that almost all respondents reported need for substantial assistance in independent living (92.76%) and economic self-sufficiency (94.92%). Large majorities also reported needing substantial assistance in acquiring new skills (71.35%) and self-direction (83.72%). In all activities except mobility, a large majority of respondents report needing at least some assistance. Data on Activity Status Available activity status information for our analysis describes each respondent's participation in four different activities: paid employment, volunteer work, housework and education. The only information on education is a binary Meaning two. The principle behind digital computers. All input to the computer is converted into binary numbers made up of the two digits 0 and 1 (bits). For example, when you press the "A" key on your keyboard, the keyboard circuit generates and transfers the number 01000001 to the indicator of full-time student Full-Time Student A status that is important for determining dependency exemptions. An individual enrolled in a post-secondary institution may be eligible for certain tax breaks. Notes: The full-time status is based on what the individual's school considers full time. status (which was "yes" for 34.62% of respondents). We defined three other binary indicators for participation in paid employment in the previous week, (43.67% of respondents), volunteer work in the previous month (11.96%) and housework in the previous week (64.5%). We defined additional indicators for the following combinations of these four activity indicators as follows: non-students with volunteer work but no paid work (3.09%); non-students who reported housework but no volunteer or paid work (13.67%); and those who were most idle (i.e., non-students with no paid work, volunteer work, or housework) (14.78%). The NCS also reported data on hours of paid work, volunteer work, and housework. Average paid hours per week for those reporting any hours was 24.02. The corresponding figures for housework hours per week and volunteer hours per month were 4.86 and 12.55 respectively. Data on Indicators of Independent Choice It has been argued that one very important determinant determinant, a polynomial expression that is inherent in the entries of a square matrix. The size n of the square matrix, as determined from the number of entries in any row or column, is called the order of the determinant. of quality of life for persons with disabilities is their scope for exercising personal choice and control (Hughes, Hwang, Kim, Eisenman & Killian, 1995; Keith, Schalock & Hoffman, 1986). The NCS data include an overall subjective rating by respondents of the extent of choice and control over their lives, along with 14 questions about the respondent's ability to choose or participate independently in specific aspects of their lives. Because the overall respondent rating of their independence could in itself be a kind of self-perceived quality of life measure (Hughes, Hwang, Kim, Eisenman & Killian, 1995), the use of this overall measure to statistically "explain" observed variations in measures such as overall life satisfaction is arguably ar·gu·a·ble adj. 1. Open to argument: an arguable question, still unresolved. 2. That can be argued plausibly; defensible in argument: three arguable points of law. tautological tau·tol·o·gy n. pl. tau·tol·o·gies 1. a. Needless repetition of the same sense in different words; redundancy. b. An instance of such repetition. 2. . Therefore, we selected 5 of the 14 specific indicators in the NCS data based on their ability to explain variability in the overall independence rating. (In their analysis of self-determination, Wehmeyer and Metzler (1995) also used the 14 specific indicators, along with other items from the NCS.) The five indicators we selected, which explained more than 40% of the variability in the overall rating, are described in Table 1. For each choice or activity, respondents were asked to pick one of nine responses ranked from 1 (for complete independence) to 9 (for complete dependence). The data in Table 1 indicate a relatively high level of independence for several items (choosing clothes, choosing friends) but high levels of dependence in two other items (giving consent for medical care, banking). TABLE 1: INDICATORS OF INDEPENDENT CHOICE
Choice/Activity Unassisted(**) With
Assistance(**)
Usually Choose Weekend Activity 39.76% 35.37%
Give Consent For Medical Care 21.76% 20.20%
Determine What Clothes To Wear 56.61% 22.64%
Choose Friends 63.82% 14.03%
Go To Bank To Deposit And 14.91% 23.13%
Withdraw Money
Choice/Activity Did Not Choose Missing/Not
or Participate; Applicable
Relied on
others(**)
Usually Choose Weekend Activity 19.87% 5.01%
Give Consent For Medical Care 52.28% 5.76%
Determine What Clothes To Wear 17.32% 3.42%
Choose Friends 12.71% 9.44%
Go To Bank To Deposit And 45.57% 16.39%
Withdraw Money
Choice/Activity Mean Score(*)
Excluding Missing/
Not Applicable
Usually Choose Weekend Activity 3.39
(N=3663)
Give Consent For Medical Care 5.06
(N=3634)
Determine What Clothes To Wear 2.81
(N=3724)
Choose Friends 2.38
(N=3492)
Go To Bank To Deposit And 5.29
Withdraw Money (N=3224)
(*) This mean is based on the following choice/participation response code values: Yes, unassisted = 1; Yes, with assistance from personal unpaid friend = 2; Yes, with assistance from family member = 3; Yes, with assistance from legal guardian = 4; Yes, with assistance from agency/school staff member = 5; No, personal unpaid friend = 6; No, family member = 7; No, legal guardian = 8; No, agency/school staff member = 9. (**) "Unassisted" corresponds to response code 1. "With Assistance" corresponds to response codes 2 through 5. "Did Not Choose or Participate: Relied on Others" corresponds to response codes 6 through 9. Dependent Variables The NCS asked respondents to rate on a five-point scale 1) their satisfaction with "life in general", 2) their satisfaction with "the ways you spend spare time," and 3) their rating of "how productive you think you are." These three responses are our dependent variable measures of life satisfaction and productivity. Life satisfaction and productivity were included by Hughes, Hwang, Kim, Eisenman, and Killian (1995) in their "consensus" list of components of quality of life based on an exhaustive literature review, and in recent instruments discussed in Schalock (1996). Self-perceived general life satisfaction has been used in a number of quality of life instruments (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Barry, 1997). Satisfaction with spare time or leisure time is often assessed as a component of overall life satisfaction (Chubon, 1995; Hughes & Hwang, 1996). Descriptive statistics descriptive statistics see statistics. on these three items are shown in Table 2. There is considerable variability in all three items among respondents, though the responses to the two satisfaction items are concentrated in the two highest response categories. It is noteworthy that almost 40% of respondents view themselves as not very productive or not productive at all. Statistical Method We assessed the contribution of activity status to self-perceived productivity and life satisfaction by estimating linear regression Linear regression A statistical technique for fitting a straight line to a set of data points. models using an iterative it·er·a·tive adj. 1. Characterized by or involving repetition, recurrence, reiteration, or repetitiousness. 2. Grammar Frequentative. Noun 1. technique developed specifically for models with ordinal (mathematics) ordinal - An isomorphism class of well-ordered sets. dependent variables (Rubinfeld, 1982). Our dependent variables were the measures reported in Table 2. Explanatory ex·plan·a·to·ry adj. Serving or intended to explain: an explanatory paragraph. ex·plan variables were (a) activity status measures, (b) independent choice measures, and (c) descriptors of demographic, health and functional characteristics. All explanatory variables and their definitions are listed in Table 3. (Note that the independent choice variables include 0-1 indicators for missing responses. Since the data in Table 1 show relatively high nonresponse rates for some of individual items, we used the technique of including these 0-1 indicators rather than dropping from our analysis the respondents with any one of these items missing (Cochran and Cox, 1957).) TABLE 2 DEPENDENT VARIABLE MEASURES How Satisfied Are You With Life? (N=3,638) Very Satisfied 45.2% Somewhat Satisfied 34.8% Neutral 8.2% Somewhat Dissatisfied 7.8% Very Dissatisfied 4.0% How Satisfied Are You With The Ways You Spend Your Spare Time? (N=3,746) Very Satisfied 39.9% Somewhat Satisfied 33.8% Neutral 7.6% Somewhat Dissatisfied 12.3% Very Dissatisfied 6.3% How Productive Do You Think You Are? (N=3,598) Very (Scale = 1) 15.3% Scale = 2 20.3% Scale = 3 26.0% Scale = 4 17.8% Not Productive At All (Scale = 5) 20.6% The Rubinfeld regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. technique has the virtues of simplicity and ease of interpretation. The coefficient coefficient /co·ef·fi·cient/ (ko?ah-fish´int) 1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities. 2. estimate that it yields for each explanatory variable is interpreted as the change in the predicted value on the outcome scale of a one-unit change in that explanatory variable. Also, hypothesis tests based on this method yield results that are almost identical to those of more sophisticated procedures such as ordered probit In statistics, ordered probit is a flavor of the popular probit analysis, used for ordinal dependent variables. Similarly, the popular logit method also has a counterpart ordered logit. or ordered logistic regression In statistics, logistic regression is a regression model for binomially distributed response/dependent variables. It is useful for modeling the probability of an event occurring as a function of other factors. (Salkever, Curcio, Jones & Seidman, 1983). As a by-product by·prod·uct or by-prod·uct n. 1. Something produced in the making of something else. 2. A secondary result; a side effect. by-product Noun 1. , the procedure also yields estimated scale values (in the range from 0 to 1) for all intermediate responses of the dependent variable. We first estimated regressions that included all of the explanatory variables shown in Table 3. Since the coefficients for a number of these variables were not significant at the the 0.1 level (two-tailed), we deleted Deleted A security that is no longer included on a specified market. Sometimes referred to as "delisted". Notes: Reasons for delisting include violating regulations, failing to meet financial specifications set out by the stock exchange and going bankrupt. variables with insignificant coefficients one at a time until the P-values for all remaining variables met the 0.1 significance threshold. These remaining variables were then used in our final iterative regressions. For the sake of brevity Brevity Adonis’ garden of short life. [Br. Lit.: I Henry IV] bubbles symbolic of transitoriness of life. [Art: Hall, 54] cherry fair cherry orchards where fruit was briefly sold; symbolic of transience. , we only present the final regressions here; as a result of the deletion deletion /de·le·tion/ (de-le´shun) in genetics, loss of genetic material from a chromosome. de·le·tion n. Loss, as from mutation, of one or more nucleotides from a chromosome. process, some variables in Table 3 did not appear in any of the final regression models. (The deletion process had virtually no effect on our findings for the significant variables. Tables presenting the complete initial regression results are available from the author.) Table 3: Explanatory Variables Included in the Regression Analyses
Name Description
0-1 Indicators of Activity Status
WORKHRSGT0 =1 if >0 hrs. spent in average week
working for pay
HWORKHRSGT0 =1 if >0 hrs. spent last week doing
housework in own home
VOLNOWK =1 if WORKHRSGT0 = 0,
STUDENT = 0 and
VOLWORKGT0 = 1
IDLE = 1 if WORKHRSGT0,
STUDENT, HWORKHRSGT0
and VOLWORKGT0 all = 0
VOLWORKGT0 =1 if >0 hrs. spent last month in civic,
community, or volunteer work
STUDENT = 1 if full-time student or trainee
HWORKONLY =1 if WORKHRSGT0 = 0, STUDENT
= 0, VOLWORKGT0 = 0 and
HWORKHRSGT0 = 1
0-1 Indicators of Specific Disabilities
MENTRET Mental retardation
CERPALSY(*) Cerebral palsy
CYSFIB(*) Cystic fibrosis
DEAFBLND(*) Deafness and blindness
EMOTION Emotional (including chronic
mental illness)
HEARING(*) Deafness or severe hearing impairment
HEADINJ Head injury
AUTISM Autism
EPILEP Epilepsy
MULTSCLR(*) Multiple sclerosis
MUSCDYS(*) Muscular dystrophy
ORTHOPED Orthopedic impairment
SPEECH(*) Speech or language impairment
VISION(*) Blindness or severe visual impairment
SPINABIF(*) Spina bifida
SPINCORD(*) Spinal cord injury
OTHNEUR Other neurological impairment
OTHDIS Other disabilities
0-1 Indicators for Level of Assitance Needed
Substantial assistance needed in:
CHOICE2 Making decisions
LANG2 Communicating
LERN2 Learning new things
LIVE2(*) Living independently
MOBL2 Personal mobility
SELF2 Self-care
Some assistance needed in:
CHOICE1 Making decisions
LANG1 Communicating
LERN1(*) Learning new things
LIVE1(*) Living independently
MOBL1 Personal mobility
SELF1(*) Self-care
Indicators of Independence in Choice/Participation (Coded
1=most to 9=least; 0 if missing)
CHWEAR Determines what clothes to wear
CHWEEKEND Usually chooses weekend activity
BANKS Goes to bank to deposit/withdraw
money
CHMEDCARE Gives consent for medical care
CHFRIEND Chooses friends
0-1 Indicators of Missing Independent
Choice/Participation Items
MISSWEAR CHWEAR=0
MISSWKND CHWEEKEND=0
MISSBANK BANKS=0
MISSMED CHMEDCARE=0
MISSFRND CHFRIEND=0
Demographic Characteristics
AGE(*) Age in years FEMALE = 1 if female
MARRIED =1 if married MOVES Number of address changes
in past 5 years
(*) Variables included in the initial regressions that were deleted due to lack of significance from all final regressions. See text for explanation. Results Life Satisfaction Table 4 presents our regression results for the two dependent variables that describe overall life satisfaction (Regression Model 1) and satisfaction with the way the respondent spends her(his) spare time (Regression Model 2). Reported coefficients show the influence of each variable on the dependent variable controlling for the values of all other variables in the regressions. Reported P-values are for the two-tailed hypothesis test that each reported coefficient is significantly different from zero. Summary statistics on each regression model are reported at the bottom of Table 4. The estimated scale values on the 0-1 interval for each of the three intermediate responses are also shown at the bottom of Table 4. In the case of spare time satisfaction (Model 2), the scaled values for the responses "Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied dis·sat·is·fied adj. Feeling or exhibiting a lack of contentment or satisfaction. dis·sat is·fied "
and "Somewhat Dissatisfied" were virtually identical and
incorrectly ordered, so these two response categories were combined into
a single category (i.e., both were assigned as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. the same scaled value) in our final estimates reported in the table. In both models in Table 4, several of the activity status variables were significantly related to expressed satisfaction levels. General life satisfaction (Model 1) was significantly lower for respondents who were idle (IDLE = 1), and respondents who only reported housework (HWORKONLY = 1), relative to all other respondents. Satisfaction with spare time (Model 2) was significantly lower for respondents who reported no paid work (either IDLE =1 or HWORKONLY=1 or VOLNOWORK = 1), and for full-time students, relative to respondents with paid work who are not students. Several specific disabilities reported by respondents were strongly related to differences in reported satisfaction levels. Controlling for other factors, persons who reported mental retardation (MENTRET=1) had significantly higher levels for both overall life satisfaction and spare time satisfaction relative to respondents who did not report mental retardation. The opposite result was found in both models for respondents reporting emotional disorders (EMOTION=1) and for those reporting head injuries (HEADINJ=1). Significant negative coefficients were also observed in the spare time satisfaction model for autism autism (ô`tĭzəm), developmental disability resulting from a neurological disorder that affects the normal functioning of the brain. It is characterized by the abnormal development of communication skills, social skills, and reasoning. (AUTISM=1) and for other neurological disorders This is a list of major and frequently observed neurological disorders (e.g. Alzheimer's disease), symptoms (e.g.back pain), signs (e.g. aphasia) and syndromes (e.g. Aicardi syndrome). (OTHNEUR=1). Relatively few of the variables describing level of assistance were significantly related to satisfaction levels. Persons needing only some assistance in communicating (LANG1=1) expressed higher levels of satisfaction relative to persons needing either substantial assistance or no assistance. The need for substantial assistance in mobility (MOBL MOBL Mountain Bluebird (bird species Sialia currucoides) MOBL Macro Oriented Business Language 2=1) was significantly and positively related to overall life satisfaction while the need for only some mobility assistance (MOBL1=1) was associated with lower levels of satisfaction with spare time. In general, the magnitudes for these significant coefficients tended to be smaller than those for the activity status variables and the specific disabilities variables. Of the five indicators of independence in choice, only those for choosing weekend activities (CHWEEKEND) and for giving consent for medical care (CHMEDCARE) were significantly related to both overall life satisfaction and spare time satisfaction. Contrary to expectation, some of these coefficients were positive, implying that more dependence is predictive of higher satisfaction. (Recall that the choice indicators are scored from 1 = most independent to 9 = most dependent.) Independence in choosing friends was only significant, with the expected negative sign, for spare time satisfaction. Finally, of the four demographic variables, only the number of address changes (MOVES) was significant in each model. Table 4: Regression Models for Satisfaction Measures
Regression Model 1
General Life Satisfaction
Variable Name Coeff. Std. Err P Value
Activity Status
IDLE -0.0877 0.0113 <0.001
HWORKONLY -0.0611 0.0107 <0.001
STUDENT N.A. N.A. N.A.
VOLNOWK N.A. N.A. N.A.
Specific Disabilities
AUTISM N.A. N.A. N.A.
EMOTION -0.1392 0.0119 <0.001
HEADINJ -0.1230 0.0158 <0.001
MENTRET 0.0509 0.0087 <0.001
ORTHOPED 0.0194 0.0115 0.092
OTHDIS -0.0152 0.0082 0.065
OTHNEUR N.A. N.A. N.A.
Level of Assistance
Needed
CHOICE2 N.A. N.A. N.A.
LANG 1 0.0225 0.0085 0.008
MOBL2 0.0187 0.0093 0.045
MOBL1 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Independence in
Choice
CHWEEKEND -0.0085 0.0016 <0.001
CHMEDCARE 0.0036 0.0015 0.016
CHWEAR N.A. N.A. N.A.
CHFRIEND N.A. N.A. N.A.
MISSWKND N.A. N.A. N.A.
MISSMED N.A. N.A. N.A.
MISSWEAR N.A. N.A. N.A.
MISSFRND -0.0473 0.0143 <0.001
Demographics
MOVES -0.0102 0.0020 <0.001
Intercept 0.836 0.0107 <0.001
R-squared 0.134
Regression F 42.68
No. of Observations 3,608
Estimated Scale Values
Very Satisfied 1
Somewhat Satisfied 0.805
Neither Satisfied nor 0.611
Dissatisfied
Somewhat Dissatisfied 0.434
Very Dissatisfied 0
Regression Model 2
Spare Time Satisfaction
Variable Name Coeff. Std. Err P Value
Activity Status
IDLE -0.0756 0.0162 <0.001
HWORKONLY -0.0613 0.0147 <0.001
STUDENT -0.0351 0.0115 0.002
VOLNOWK -0.0817 0.0270 0.003
Specific Disabilities
AUTISM -0.0401 0.0181 0.026
EMOTION -0.1128 0.0149 <0.001
HEADINJ -0.1434 0.0202 <0.001
MENTRET 0.0576 0.0111 <0.001
ORTHOPED N.A. N.A. N.A.
OTHDIS N.A. N.A. N.A.
OTHNEUR -0.0538 0.0175 0.002
Level of Assistance
Needed
CHOICE2 -0.0180 0.0140 0.196
LANG 1 0.0362 0.0107 0.001
MOBL2 N.A. N.A. N.A.
MOBL1 -0.0420 0.0149 0.005
Independence in
Choice
CHWEEKEND -0.0147 0.0024 <0.001
CHMEDCARE 0.0078 0.0021 <0.001
CHWEAR 0.0040 0.0027 0.136
CHFRIEND -0.0112 0.0026 <0.001
MISSWKND -0.1628 0.0363 <0.001
MISSMED 0.0665 0.0309 0.032
MISSWEAR 0.1203 0.0557 0.031
MISSFRND -0.1109 0.0220 <0.001
Demographics
MOVES -0.0088 0.0025 <0.001
Intercept 0.8157 0.0153 <0.001
R-squared 0.119
Regression F 23.24
No. of Observations 3,626
Estimated Scale Values
Very Satisfied 1
Somewhat Satisfied 0.787
Neither Satisfied nor 0.405
Dissatisfied
Somewhat Dissatisfied 0.405
Very Dissatisfied 0
N.A. - Variable was deleted from the regression model due to an insignificant P value. Self-Perceived Productivity Results for the model of self-perceived productivity (Model 3) are presented in Table 5. Five of the activity status variables were highly significant. The estimated coefficient for persons who were idle (IDLE=1) is strongly negative. The coefficients for the two housework variables (HWORKONLY=1 and HWORKHRSGT0= 1) were significant and roughly equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. The significantly positive coefficients for positive work hours (WORKHRSGT0=1) and positive volunteer hours (VOLWORKGT0=1) suggest that engaging in either paid work or volunteer work increases self-perceived productivity; however, the magnitude of the increase is somewhat larger for paid for work. Table 5: Regression Model for Self-Perceived Productivity (Model 3) Variable Name Coeff. Std. Err P Value Activity Status IDLE -0.1543 0.0177 <0.001 HWORKONLY -0.1002 0.0163 <0.001 HWORKHRSGT0 0.1168 0.0135 <0.001 WORKHRSGT0 0.0688 0.0119 <0.001 VOLWORKGT0 0.047931 0.0148 0.0013 Specific Disabilities MENTRET -0.0117 0.0115 0.309 EMOTION -0.0464 0.0150 0.002 EPILEP -0.0438 0.0120 <0.001 HEADINJ -0.0425 0.0202 0.035 Level of Assistance Needed CHOICE2 -0.1121 0.0228 <0.001 CHOICE1 -0.0629 0.0248 0.011 MOBL2 -0.0254 0.0134 0.058 LERN2 -0.0305 0.0113 0.007 SELF2 -0.0576 0.0125 <0.001 Demographics MARSTAT -0.0547 0.0330 0.097 Independence in Choice CHWEEKEND -0.0136 0.0024 <0.001 CHMEDCARE -0.0035 0.0020 0.082 CHWEAR -0.0174 0.0027 <0.001 CHFRIEND -0.0136 0.0026 <0.001 BANKS -0.0065 0.0022 0.003 MISSWKND -0.0660 0.0346 0.057 MISSFRND -0.1383 0.0219 <0.001 MISSBANK -0.0760 0.0189 <0.001 EMOTION Intercept 0.9373 0.0268 <0.001 R-squared 0.423 Regression F 110.11 No. of Observations 3,477 Estimated Scale Values Very Productive = 1 1 Response = 2 0.935 Response = 3 0.791 Response = 4 0.59 Not Productive at All = 5 0 The only significant disability indicators in the productivity regression were those for emotional disorders (EMOTION=1), head injuries (HEADINJ=1), and epilepsy (EPILEP=1); all three had negative coefficients indicating lower self-perceived productivity. We also found a very consistent pattern in our results for the level of assistance variables. Persons needing more assistance and more kinds of assistance had lower self-perceived productivity. The results also showed a consistent pattern for the indicators of independence in choice. The significantly negative coefficients suggest that persons who were more independent reported higher levels of self-perceived productivity. Discussion Summary of Results Our analysis showed a number of strong relationships between activity status and the dependent variables. Overall life satisfaction was clearly lowest for persons who were idle or who only reported housework as an activity. On the other hand, there were no significant differences in this measure between students, persons with paid employment, and persons doing volunteer work. Satisfaction with spare time was significantly higher for persons with paid employment relative to all other activity groups. Self-perceived productivity was positively related to all work activities (housework, paid employment, and volunteer work), but was lower for persons who only did housework and students with no work activities; it was clearly lowest for persons who were completely idle. Implications and Limitations of the Analysis As noted above, the use of outcome measures related to quality of life for assessing transition outcomes has received considerable discussion in the literature. The empirical analysis presented in this paper has several interesting implications for this discussion. First, our analysis presents clear evidence that outcome measures relating to reported life satisfaction and self-perceived productivity are strongly related to activity status for young adults. This is consistent with the view that transition programs, which impact on activity status, can in fact be assessed through the use of these outcome measures. Ultimately, one could envision these types of measures being routinely incorporated into evaluation protocols for assessing program performance. Second, our findings provide support for the view that while paid employment is the most desirable objective for transition programs, it is not the only transition outcome that has positive implications for quality of life. More specifically, we find that both idleness and being only involved in housework are associated with substantial reductions in overall life satisfaction; but among the other respondents who do not report paid work (i.e., students and volunteer workers), overall life satisfaction is not significantly lower relative to respondents who are in paid employment. Moreover, all types of work (i.e., housework, volunteer and paid work) are positively related to self-perceived productivity. Only in the analysis of satisfaction with spare time is there clear evidence that persons who have paid work report more positive responses than all those who do not. Third, the relationship of activity status to individual components or sub-components of quality of life appears to vary among these specific components. For example, the strength and pattern of the activity status results for self-perceived productivity and for satisfaction with spare time are different from one another. This points to the need, in selecting specific quality of life measures to be used for program evaluation purposes, to employ a range of measures. It also suggests the desirability of matching the various components of quality of life measures to those different types of programs (e.g., employment vs. recreation programs) for which they are the most relevant. Fourth, in attempting to relate the self-reported outcome measures to activity status, it is very important to recognize substantial differences in overall levels of these measures among different groups of young adults defined by their reported disabilities. In our analysis, for example, even after controlling for a variety of other factors in addition to activity status, we find significant outcome differences for persons with emotional disorders and persons with head injuries that all point in the general direction of lower quality of life. An obvious implication for research that assesses transition programs is that we must be very cautious about comparisons across groups of young adults that differ in terms of reported disabilities. In assessing the implications of this study for further research on transition outcomes, one must also be cognizant cog·ni·zant adj. Fully informed; conscious. See Synonyms at aware. [From cognizance.] Adj. 1. of several important limitations in the study. One important limitation is that our data do not contain a comprehensive array of quality-of-life measures. The specific items contained in the NCS relate to only a small portion of the many domains of quality of life, and the reader should be warned, by the variability in our results among the specific outcome measures, not to generalize generalize /gen·er·al·ize/ (-iz) 1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic. 2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. our findings uncritically to the many other quality-of-life domains we could not examine. Moreover, as noted above, we have confined con·fine v. con·fined, con·fin·ing, con·fines v.tr. 1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand. See Synonyms at limit. our analysis to outcome measures that can be categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat as psychological indicators (Dennis, Williams, Giangreco & Cloninger, 1993; Schalock, 1996), and have not examined other outcome measures corresponding to the social indicator or goodness-of-fit perspectives on quality of life measurement. While this limited perspective allows us to avoid outcome measures that are arithmetically related to our activity status indicators, the reader should recognize this limitation in interpreting our results within a broader quality-of-life context. A second limitation is that our focus has been specifically on activity status outcomes. A number of other important categories of transition outcomes have been identified in the literature, such as independent living and social integration (Hallum, 1995; White, 1997). A comprehensive empirical assessment of transition success obviously needs to include these other categories of outcomes although they are beyond the scope of the present analysis. Limitations of this research in terms of data and research design should also be noted. As indicated above, the NCS sample is not a representative random sample drawn from the general population of persons with developmental disabilities. This also implies caution in generalizing our results. Moreover, because our analysis is a cross-sectional study cross-sectional study n. See synchronic study. cross-sectional study, n the scientific method for the analysis of data gathered from two or more samples at one point in time. of survey data, it is subject to threats to internal validity Internal validity is a form of experimental validity [1]. An experiment is said to possess internal validity if it properly demonstrates a causal relation between two variables [2] [3]. from omitted factors that could cause spurious spu·ri·ous adj. Similar in appearance or symptoms but unrelated in morphology or pathology; false. spurious simulated; not genuine; false. associations in our regressions. Research that assesses specific transition programs with before-after or randomized ran·dom·ize tr.v. ran·dom·ized, ran·dom·iz·ing, ran·dom·iz·es To make random in arrangement, especially in order to control the variables in an experiment. designs would be much less subject to these threats. In conclusion, it is hoped that this analysis will stimulate additional empirical research on the application of self-reported quality-of-life measures, in a broad range of activity status outcomes, for assessing transition programs. Conceptual discussions of the definition and use of relevant outcome measures have already appeared in the literature and laid a solid foundation for this empirical research. This is an opportune op·por·tune adj. 1. Suited or right for a particular purpose: an opportune place to make camp. 2. Occurring at a fitting or advantageous time: an opportune arrival. time for collection and analysis of additional data, including assessments of specific transition programs, that will promote the development of practical assessment protocols and procedures. If the empirical results from this additional data analysis parallel the findings reported here, they may suggest a broadening of program focus to augment aug·ment v. aug·ment·ed, aug·ment·ing, aug·ments v.tr. 1. To make (something already developed or well under way) greater, as in size, extent, or quantity: employment services with opportunities to pursue other productive activities (e.g., education, volunteer work) that also enhance participants' quality of life. Acknowledgement Thanks are due to Marisa Domino, James Collins James Collins may refer to:
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Salkever, Ph.D., Professor, Dept. of Health Policy Management, The John Hopkins University School of Public Health, Hampton House The Hampton House is a Chicago, Illinois residential condominium located in the Hyde Park neighborhood on the property that once housed the Hyde Park House, a hotel built by Hyde Park founder Paul Cornell in the 1850s. , Room 429, 624 North Broadway, Baltimore, MD 21205. Email: salkever@jhu.edu |
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