Accommodations for Assimilation.

Supporting Newly Arrived Children From the Chinese Mainland to Hong Kong 

Increasing diversity in societies throughout the world requires these societies to develop and implement strategies for effectively educating children from varied cultural backgrounds. Educators all over the world are concerned with how well host nations meet the needs of immigrant children (e.g., Eisikovits & Beck, 1990; Ghuman, 2000; Patel, Power, & Bhavnagri, 1996; Roebers & Schneider, 1999).

This article highlights the ways in which immigrant children are helped to settle into Hong Kong society. Britain returned Hong Kong to China on June 30,1997, and it is now a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China (aka mainland China). Before and after this transfer, Hong Kong has been a destination for immigration from mainland China. The term "New Arrivals" was coined by the Hong Kong government to refer to mainland Chinese who have been in Hong Kong for less than one year. The phrase New Arrival Children (NAC) refers to youth, up to the age of 20, and is used in all government documents. Here, the authors elaborate on the problems faced by NAC, describe efforts made by the Hong Kong community to address these problems, and suggest some strategies to further support the children's optimal development and learning.

Eisikovits and Beck (1990) argue that educational services offered to immigrant children are affected by the host nation's general attitude towards immigrants. Some countries merely tolerate immigrants, while others may actively recruit highly skilled immigrants to benefit their economies. Furthermore, nations follow varying paradigms in terms of immigrants' mode of interaction with the new society. Bhatnagar (1983) has articulated three modalities: assimilation, adjustment, or integration. Under the assimilation paradigm, immigrants adopt the ways of the host nation, including its language, traditions, and mannerisms. Over time, the immigrants are indistinguishable from the long-term members of the host society. Under the adjustment paradigm, immigrants modify some of their behaviors to fit into the host society, while preserving some of their old values and traditions. Under the integration paradigm, which supports a multicultural society, both immigrants and members of a host nation make adjustments. The educational support services provided to the NAC in Hong Kong can be considered as falling under the assimilation paradigm.

Until the 1980s, illegal immigrants from mainland China were allowed to stay in Hong Kong if they managed to evade capture at the borders and could reach urban areas. From the 1980s to the mid-1990s, however, the Hong Kong government operated under a strict and immediate repatriation policy for illegal immigrants from China, and it maintained a quota for legal immigrants (who could not be in the age range of 6-14 years). Only after the reunification in 1997 were dependent children of a Hong Kong resident and a mainland Chinese spouse allowed entry into Hong Kong. Therefore, the needs of school-age immigrants only recently have become a concern in Hong Kong. From 1987 to 1988, 5,177 NAC were admitted into Hong Kong primary schools, whereas 17,518 were admitted from 1998-1999 (Hong Kong Government, 2000). Given the comparatively small size of Hong Kong's education system, this drastic increase underscores the need for more resources and training to help teachers promote development and facilitate learning for NAC children.

CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES

Results from surveys conducted by the government and independent research teams (e.g., Chan, Ip, & Yuen, 1996) indicate that NAC face a number of challenges. These include: 1) securing age-appropriate school placements; 2) adjusting to a new education system and curricula; 3) adapting to a new school and social environment; 4) facing segregation, prejudice, and marginalization; and 4) adjusting to changes in family ecologies. Various support strategies/solutions have been developed to deal with each of these challenges.

Securing Age-Appropriate School Placement

Hong Kong offers free education to children ages 6 to 15. In order to ensure that all new arrivals can be enrolled in local schools, the government has built more schools to cope with the increased demand. Since 1997, the government has constructed seven primary schools, and it plans to complete six more primary schools and 19 more secondary schools by 2002 (Hong Kong Government, 1999a).

There is only one legal entry point into Hong Kong for immigrants from China. Arrivals receive a leaflet on education in Hong Kong and an application form; these materials are also available at the 19 District Education Offices of Hong Kong. This method ensures that all parents are aware of the educational services to which their children are entitled, as well as the relevant procedures. On receipt of the application form, the District Education Officer contacts the parents and provides assistance in securing school placement for their school-age children.

Children may not get school placements immediately, however. Chan et al. (1996) examined the needs and adjustment status of NAC in 33 primary and 10 secondary schools in Sham Shui Po, a district that has a high proportion of relatively recent immigrants from the mainland. Of approximately 1,000 NAC, they found that about 53 percent of the children in Sham Shui Po started attending school within three months of their arrival in Hong Kong. However, 17 percent remained at home for more than six months, and 6 percent had to wait over 12 months for a school placement.

In addition to waiting for school admission, many children have to repeat grades. Thirty-eight percent of the NAC in the Chan study had to repeat the same grade, 28 percent were placed two grades lower, and 12 percent were placed three grades lower than they had been in mainland China. These findings are consistent with government figures for the period October 1995 to September 1996 (Hong Kong Government, 1997).

The main reason for repeating grades is that the newly arrived students could not cope with the schools' English language curriculum. Chinese is the language of instruction in primary schools and in most secondary schools. According to teachers, about 50 percent of the students were weak in English literacy, 16 percent were weak in Chinese literacy, and about 12 percent were weak in math (Hong Kong Government, 1997). Also contributing to the high rate of grade repetition are parents' desire for their children to attend "prestigious" schools, and the inadequacy of desired secondary school placements. The above evidence indicates that there is a need to expedite school placement for these children and to advocate for age-appropriate placements.

Adjusting to the New Educational System and Curricula

Educational Support Services. Various support services are specifically tailored to meet the educational needs of the new arrivals. The goal of these services is to help the children "integrate quickly with the local education system" (Hong Kong Government, 1999a, p. 1). To this end, the government has: financed a number of Induction/Extension Programs, which are run by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); funded school-based support schemes; and developed self-learning packages for the young immigrants. Table 1 presents a list of the four different services available, including their objectives and modes of operation.

All of these programs/schemes target language skills to varying extents. The language environment in Hong Kong differs from that in mainland China. In Hong Kong, the Chinese dialect of Cantonese is spoken, whereas Putonghua is used in the mainland. Although the written characters of Modern Standard Chinese carry the same meaning for speakers of different Chinese dialects, the characters used in mainland China are simplified, while in Hong Kong, the traditional Chinese characters are still used. Chinese and English are official languages in Hong Kong, where Cantonese is spoken by over 90 percent of the population. With the change of sovereignty, Putonghua has become increasingly important.

Despite the differences in the mother tongue, the educational support services target English language skills, rather than Cantonese ones. This is because students from the mainland have had very limited exposure to English, whereas in Hong Kong, English is taught as a subject in local primary schools, and some secondary schools use English as the language of instruction. Therefore, new immigrants who have not learned English find it very difficult to cope in their new schools. Although teachers and other service providers are sensitive to the needs of young immigrants as they pertain to their adjustment to a new school system, no attempt has been made to open schools in which Putonghua is the language of instruction.

Since 1997, many of these support services have been offered through the schools (see Table 1). Schools that enroll NAC receive a grant for each child at the time of enrollment. This grant enables the school to purchase the resources necessary to design and execute programs to cater to the special learning needs of NAC. Short-term, full-time preparatory courses, held in 38 schools, help NAC adjust to the Hong Kong school context before formal enrollment.

Programs Subsidized by the Education Department
of the Hong Kong Government

                                 Year              Objectives
                                started

Induction Program (IP)           1995         To help NAC
for NAC from mainland                         adapt to the HK
China                                         school and social
                                              context

                                              To provide remedial
                                              teaching
                                              in the core subjects
                                              of Chinese, English,
                                              and mathematics

English Extension                1995         To enhance the
Program (EEP) for                             English standard
NAC from mainland                             of the NAC
China

School-Based Support             1997         To provide resources
Scheme (SBSS) for schools                     to schools
with intake of NAC from                       with an intake of
mainland China                                NAC so they can
                                              design and implement
                                              programs to
                                              cater to the needs
                                              of these children

Short-term, Full-time            1997         To help NAC adapt
Preparatory Course (SFPC)                     to the local school
                                              context before enro-
                                              llingin a normal
                                              school class

                             Target group           Service
                                                   providers
                                              program operations

Induction Program (IP)      6- to 15-year-    Non-profit-
for NAC from mainland       olds who have     making NGOs
China                       been in HK for
                            less than a
                            year; those who
                            have not
                            attended the
                            English
                            Extension
                            Program (below)

English Extension           9- to 15-year-    Non-profit-
Program (EEP) for           -olds who have    making NGOs
NAC from mainland           been in HK for
China                       less than a
                            year

School-Based Support        Schools with an   Public sector
Scheme (SBSS) for schools   intake of NAC     schools are
with intake of NAC from                       given funds
mainland China

Short-term, Full-time                         38 schools
Preparatory Course (SFPC)

                                Length
                              and mode of

Induction Program (IP)      60 hours
for NAC from mainland
China                       instruction in
                            groups of 10-12

English Extension           60 hours of
Program (EEP) for           instruction in
NAC from mainland           groups
China

School-Based Support        Schools may use
Scheme (SBSS) for schools   the grant for
with intake of NAC from     supplementary
mainland China              teaching
                            resources, and
                            for organizing
                            activities for
                            NAC

Short-term, Full-time       Classes are
Preparatory Course (SFPC)   held in 38
                            schools

Recent Developments. In addition to these formal schemes, the Education Department of the Hong Kong government has provided some teaching and learning resources to schools with NAC (Hong Kong Government, 1999a). These include curriculum guidelines and attainment tests for Chinese, English, and mathematics, an English language self-learning package, and a CD-ROM on traditional Chinese characters.

Other recent developments include the opening of "Services Center" in Guangzhou (a mainland city near Hong Kong) and "Starter Programs" in local schools. The Education Department has collaborated with a Service Center in Guangzhou to provide English language courses to those who might soon be immigrating. In addition, the Education Department will pilot a six-month-long "Starter Program" in two primary schools and two secondary schools. These school-based programs aim to prepare NAC in English, Chinese, personal development, and social adjustment, so that they will adjust better to Hong Kong schools.

A Central Coordinating Committee on New Arrivals monitors, assesses, and advises on supporting services for the newly arrived. District Coordinating Committees on New Arrival Services also serve to identify problems and to recommend effective measures at the district levels. For example, school principals are encouraged to refer NAC and their families to various counseling and support services in the community (Tang Lai, 1998).

Evaluation of Educational Support Services. In June 1999, the Education Department engaged an independent research team to review the effectiveness of the support services provided to NAC, including the induction program, the remedial teaching program, the school-based support scheme, and the preparatory course. The team evaluated each of the programs individually and collectively to identify any duplication of services. A sample of 1,500 NAC participated in the study. Younger participants were interviewed in small groups, whereas older pupils completed questionnaires. Service providers (from schools and NGOs) also were interviewed (Hong Kong Government, 1999b).

The results indicated that the programs were implemented in accordance with the guidelines set out by the Education Department. Although the research team evaluated the programs favorably, they found some degree of overlap. Consequently, the team recommended that NGOs offer programs that primarily help children adjust to the environment, whereas schools should offer academic-related programs. (The danger of this recommendation is that it fails to adequately consider the interdependence of academic and nonacademic factors on school performance.) The research team also recommended: 1) providing extra professional support to teachers of NAC, 2) establishing a resource center for teachers with curriculum materials that meet the educational needs of NAC, 3) providing financial incentives to encourage regular school teachers to conduct induction programs for immigrant children, and 4) helping schools work out methods to evaluate the quality of teacher-developed programs for NAC. Overall, the review indicated that the support schemes were achieving the objectives shown in Table 1.

The Hong Kong Government has been proactive in designing educational support services for NAC, and has provided the necessary financial resources to operate these programs. For example, grants are given to schools based on the number of immigrants accepted in a given year. This money is then used to purchase materials needed to tailor curriculum for NAC, or to hire staff for special classes. In general, school-based programs have been implemented according to government guidelines.

Adapting to a New School and Social Environment

In December 1999, Lam Chin, an 18-year-old immigrant, committed suicide. Lam

Chin, a secondary student in the Chinese mainland, had arrived in Hong Kong in 1995. When she reached Hong Kong, she was placed in a primary school, in a class three grade levels lower than the one she had attended in the mainland. When she committed suicide, she was a Grade 10 student with excellent academic performance. Before her death, she wrote two essays articulating her experience of discrimination in Hong Kong. She was unhappy because: 1) prestigious schools in Hong Kong refused to give her a placement even though she had been an outstanding student in the Chinese mainland; 2) she was about 3 years older than most of her classmates, and was taunted for being "so old"; and 3) her classmates made derogatory comments about her, as she was a "mainland girl."

When Lam Chin's story was published in the Ming Pao and Sing Dao Daily newspapers ("Director apologized," 2000; "Mrs. Law," 2000), it heightened public awareness of the plight of NAC in the Hong' Kong school system. Responding to the incident, the Director of Education of the Hong Kong government sent E-mail to all of the teachers in Hong Kong and stated that, "As the Director of Education, it is difficult for me to imagine that Lam Chin's experience of being discriminated against could happen in the education field, in a school" ("Director apologized," 2000). This tragic incident made teachers even more conscious of their role in ensuring that NAC are treated appropriately in the school environment.

An example of how groups of teachers working together can support NAC in their social adjustment in school comes from the work of Chan, Yuen, and Lau (in press). These researchers describe a program jointly designed and implemented by a teacher and a guidance counselor in a primary school. The purpose of the group guidance program was to enhance the self-esteem of the NAC. The intervention consisted of ten 90-minute sessions, held over a period of 7 weeks; it included such themes as "Making Friends," "Achievement," "Holding Tomorrow in My Hands," "Actively Serving Others," and "I Can Be Great." The participants were involved in games, case study analysis, self-evaluation, goal setting, and volunteer work. At the end of the intervention, the participants reported that they had learned important social skills, which helped them get along better with classmates; gained a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses; and were better prepared to deal with changes. Such research shows the important role of the classroom teacher and provides an impetus for professionals to collaborate in helping young immigrants to adjust to a new school environment.

Segregation, Prejudice, and Marginalization

Newly arrived immigrants from China tend to live with other immigrants in particular districts, thus limiting their interaction with Hong Kong Chinese. These immigrants face prejudice from the majority population. It is easy for Hong Kong residents to identify immigrants from the mainland because of their accent and dialect. It is not unusual for these immigrants to be called racist names, be refused service by taxi drivers, and receive substandard service in shops (Hong Kong Government, 1997, p. 28).

Chau, Chiu, and Foo (1997) investigated Hong Kong people's perceptions of the new arrivals from China. They interviewed 475 respondents, ranging in age from 18 to 75 years. The results indicated that Hong Kong people discriminated against new arrivals from China, commonly describing them more often than not as impolite, unhygienic, greedy, uneducated, and unable to integrate into Hong Kong society. The interviewees evaluated the new arrivals more negatively than they did Hong Kong Chinese people, and perceived that the new arrivals brought more negative than positive influences to Hong Kong. The results also suggested that Hong Kong people perceived new arrivals as placing an extra burden on Hong Kong's housing, education, and social welfare services infrastructures. Even some of the respondents' "favorable" remarks indicate a certain discrimination. For example, they may praise the immigrants' willingness to take on some of the lower-paying jobs that native Hong Kong people shun.

The importance of support from peers for NAC is illustrated in the experience of a young immigrant. In November 2000, Lam Yau Chung, who had only first arrived in Hong Kong three years earlier at the age of 16, was awarded the "Cup for Excellent Voluntary Services." Initially, Lam Yau Chung was placed in a Grade 7 class in Hong Kong. Because of the language barrier he faced, at first he resisted talking with his peers, leaving him socially isolated. A turning point came for him when he decided to join the "Voluntary Peer Counselor Scheme," organized by his teachers and social workers from a family service agency. The program taught him communication and leadership skills. He gained self-confidence through making home visits and leading activities at school. He was particularly enthusiastic about sharing his experiences with other newly arrived teenagers. In an interview, Lam Yau Chung stated, "There are so many people who experience more hardship than me. I have been very fortunate ... in fact, I do not know anything, but I have adjusted to the life in Hong Kong" ("Mainland immigrant," 2000).

Adjusting to Changes in Family Ecologies

The incidence of psychiatric problems in immigrant youth may be tied to disruptions in family relations (Burke, 1980; Rutter, Yule, Morton, & Berger, 1974). For example, between July 1998 and June 1999, the Family Casework Service for New Arrivals (offered by the Social Welfare Department of the Hong Kong Government) dealt with 1,136 cases (a case may include several family members), which involved 2,053 new arrivals in Hong Kong (Hong Kong Government, 1999c). Families are often separated, as many mothers have not yet received the Right of Abode in Hong Kong, and therefore must remain in mainland China.

In their survey of the family background of NAC living in Sham Shui Po, Chan et al. (1996) found that the majority of the fathers (72 percent) were born in China and attained Hong Kong resident status by living in the territory for over 7 years. Most of the mothers (70 percent) had lived in Hong Kong for less than 7 years, and about 19 percent of the mothers were still in the mainland. These statistics are representative of the new arrivals in Hong Kong, and reflect some of the problems these children face in Hong Kong. It is important to note that children in this study had resided in Hong Kong for less than two years. Therefore, they had possibly not seen much of their fathers in their early years, because they most likely lived in the mainland with their mothers. They, then, might have come to live with their fathers in Hong Kong, only to be separated from their mothers and siblings. Even when their mothers did arrive in Hong Kong, they often did not know Cantonese, and this adversely affects home-school contacts.

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

If societies want to facilitate the optimal development of young immigrants, they must provide educational support services that are based on an analysis of the needs of these children and youth. What can educators in other parts of the world learn from Hong Kong's experience in coping with a relatively large influx of school-age immigrants over a short period? The Hong Kong context provides examples of good policies and practices, as well as some that are not child-friendly.

On the positive side, Hong Kong was very proactive in dealing with the influx of New Arrival Children. The Education Department constructed new schools, provided school placements, and assisted parents in finding appropriate schools. Schools and non-governmental organizations worked together to provide induction and support programs for the NAC, and developed instructional materials to meet the special learning needs of immigrant children. Furthermore, the government commissioned an independent review of the various support services and encouraged service providers to work together to improve coordination of services. Another example of good practice can be found in the Sham Shui Po District, a residential district with a high concentration of immigrants. The District Board has done much for the new arrivals through the provision of community-based support services.

On the other hand, some immigration and educational policies and practices in Hong Kong are detrimental to young children's development and learning. For example, current immigration policies should be amended so as to allow mothers of NAC to reunite with their families in Hong Kong as soon as possible. In terms of school placement, the fact that NAC are in classes with children much older than themselves has been problematic. This age-inappropriate placement has made social integration and friendship formation more difficult for the young immigrants.

The environment as experienced by new arrivals plays an important role in their adjustment to the host nation. Public education campaigns are needed to alleviate the negative stereotypes held by members of the host territory towards immigrants from the Chinese mainland. In particular, seminars for local students must be conducted to encourage them to welcome their peers. Collaboration among teachers, counselors, and other professionals in designing group and individual programs for NAC also should be actively supported.

References

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Burke, A. (1980). Family stress and the precipitation of psychiatric disorder: A comparative study among immigrant West Indian and native British patients in Birmingham. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 26(1), 87-96.

Chan, M. C., Ip, K. Y., & Yuen, M. T. (1996). Adaptation and needs of young new-arrivals from mainland China in the Sham Shui Po district. Hong Kong: 3A Printing Co.

Chan, S., Yuen, M. T., & Lau, P. (in press). The effects of a group guidance program on the self-esteem of newly arrived children from the Chinese mainland to Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Education.

Chau, A.W.L., Chiu, C. Y., & Foo, L. H. Y. (1997). Hong Konger's perception of new migrants from mainland China. In R. Ramos, J. R. Dinis, R. Wilson, & D. Y. Yuan (Eds.), Macau and its neighbours toward the 21st century (pp. 3-11). Macau: University of Macau.

Director apologized to the immigrant girl who committed suicide. (2000, January 5). Ming Pao, p. A16. (Chinese newspaper).

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Mainland immigrant becoming the king of volunteers. (2000, November 13). Ming Pao, p. A12. (Chinese newspaper).

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Patel, N., Power, T. C., & Bhavnagri, N. P. (1996). Socialization values and practices of Indian immigrant parents: Correlates of modernity and acculturation. Child Development, 67, 302-313.

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Nirmala Rao is Associate Professor and Mantak Yuen is Assistant Professor, Department of Education, The University of Hong Kong.