Abang in the middle and upper Kapuas: additional evidence.

In his recent paper on the abang honorific (denoting royal blood for men) among Sarawak and Sadong Malays, Bob Reece (n.d.) contends that its use most likely originated in pre-Islamic West Borneo as a new class of leaders arose through unions between immigrant Hindu-Javanese traders (linked ideologically to Majapahit and its many tributaries) and local Dayak. Use of the honorific abang became institutionalized over the generations and was retained as Islam made its slow ascent of the Kapuas. (1) Reece argues that the middle Kapuas kingdom of Mangkiang-Sanggau (or simply Sanggau in West Kalimantan) might be the origin of the honorific, given the frequency of abang in royal genealogies and its close connection through intermarriage, legend, and tributary claims to Sarawak. In this paper, I present additional evidence on abang from the middle and upper Kapuas (Figure 1) that supports Reece's argument for a Kapuas origin, based on both Dutch and oral historical sources.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Following a Dutch hiatus in interior West Borneo of over 20 years, in 1856 Assistant Resident H. von Gaffron journeyed along the middle and upper Kapuas to re-establish relations with the various Malay rulers, sign new contracts with them, and make treaties with leaders of the large tribal blocks such as the Iban (Batang Loepars), Kayan, Embaloh, and Taman. As part of his report, yon Gaffron included descent lines of the Malay rulers from Sintang to Jongkong. (2) I reproduce these here, as von Gaffron reported them, with the original Dutch spelling and reference to the abang honorific highlighted. We should not assume, however, that these all represent direct father-son (or -daughter) successions, which they do not, as von Gaffron provides very shallow genealogical information. (3) The title abang is evident here, interspersed with other (perhaps less archaic) royal titles such as pangeran, panambahan, and radin, but seems more prevalent in the far upriver kingdom of Selimbau.

Descent Line of Sintang Rulers

1. Djarak Joeantie (Pattie Anoem)
2. Abang Saman
3. Djebaijer [son-in-law of No. 2 from Java]
4. Abang Soer
5. Abang Tamelang
6. Pangeran Pandeling
7. Pangeran Toengal
8. Pangeran Praboe
9. Pangeran Soeta Natta (Sulthan)
10. Sulthan Tikaij
11. Sulthan Muhamd Samsoedin
12. Pangeran Ratoe
13. Pangeran Dipattie
14. Panambahan Kasoema Nagara

Descent Line of Silat Rulers

1. Panambahan Titie
2. Aboeng Maas Toetie/Pangeran Anoem [transcription error of abang?]
3. Panambahan Bago
4. Panambahan Mitjoek
5. Pangeran Anoem
6. Pangeran Ratoe

Descent Line of Selimbau Rulers

1. Abang Tadjoek
2. Abang Tadjoek [sic]
3. Abang Maas
4. Abang Paijong
5. Abang Djamal
6. Abang Kana
7. Abang Kladu
8. Poetrie Kambang [married to Abang Telu]
9. Abang Kaloedjoe
10. Abang Koendan
11. Abang Paijong
12. Pangeran Soema
13. Pangeran Muhamed

Descent Line of Jongong Rulers

1. Kiai Patie Oedah
2. Radin Nathar
3. Radin Martha (died in 1855)
4. Abang Abdoel Arab

Enthoven's (1903) later, more detailed account of the Kapuas Malay kingdoms also cites numerous rulers and nobles with abang honorifics. For example, the founder of Bunut (the youngest kingdom from 1815) was Abang Barita, a Malay trader from Selimbau who was descended from Embaloh blood and married to a daughter of the Selimbau ruler. (Interestingly, von Gaffron reports the founder of Bunut as Adie Soetrie, perhaps his title prior to taking the subsequent name.) He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Abang Soerjia, in 1855; the latter's own son, Abang Oetih followed in 1859, succeeded then in 1876 by his son, Abang Tella, who was on the throne until his banishment for misdeeds in 1884. His son, Abang Tanah, was chosen as the next ruler (1903, 1:94-97). Most of these rulers took on quite highfaluting titles upon ascending to the throne--Panembahan Adi Pakoe Negara (Abang Barita), Pangeran Adipati Mangkoe Negara (Abang Soerija and Abang Tellah), Pangeran Adipati (Abang Oetih), and Pangeran Ratoe Adi Pakoe Negara (Abang Tanah)--suggesting that the older abang honorific was fine for "everyday use" but just no longer in style when one got to the throne.

Of Jongkong (known prior to 1868 by its place name, Ulak Lamau), Enthoven (1903, I: 127-31) confirms yon Gaffron's account, with Kiai Patie Oeda (the chief at the time of the first Dutch expedition upriver in 1823) having the fore-title of radja; he was succeeded by his son, Radin Nata, and the latter, having no son of his own, was succeeded by his grandson, Abang Abdoel Arab, the issue of Radin Nata's daughter, Dajang Mesinto, and a Muslim Palin Dayak named Abang Boedja. (Both Radin Nata and Abang Abdoel Arab used pangeran as their fore-title.) Abang Abdoel Arab's oldest son, Abang Oenang, took the throne in 1864, along with the title, Pangeran Soleiman Soerija Negara. Upon Abang Oenang's death in 1886, his oldest son, Abang Alam, still a minor, took the throne under three regents--Raden Soema, Abang Ali, and Abang Kijoeng. (Enthoven makes no mention of Radin Martha, "number three" on yon Gaffron's list, perhaps because of a short, unmemorable reign or an error in one or the other's information.) The "everyday" nature of abang is borne out in the Jongkong genealogy that Enthoven records, with the sons of Abang Oenang listed as Abang Alam, Abang Osman, Abang Noeh, and Abang Obal, ranging in age from 20 to 13 years (1903, I: 130-131). This would seem to make abang the male equivalent of the ubiquitous upper and middle Kapuas female honorific, dayang (long used by the nearby Iban as a term of endearment for girls).

Von Gaffron does not remark on the kingdom of Piasa, perhaps because of its historical small size and largely inferior status compared to Jongkong and Selimbau. Enthoven (1903, I:135-38), however, cites the official Piasa history (salasila) as claiming its founder, Raden Djaka Lemana, traced his origins from a princess of Majapahit. Enthoven's sources in Selimbau said that Raden Djaka Lemana had come from Labai Lawai, said to be the earlier version of Sukadana (but see Smith 2005). When the first Dutch treaty was signed with Piasa in 1823 during Hartmann's trip, the ruler was Abang Soewara (whose title was Kijai Dipati Martapoera and who was the twelfth ruler according to its official history). He was succeeded by his eldest son, Abang Noeh, who in 1859 took the title, Pangeran Osman Dirdja Kesoema Negara, and reigned until his death in 1896. Abang Noeh's illegitimate son, Abang Santoek, was installed on the throne by the Dutch because they had little faith in the legitimate heir, Abang Bijak, who was both grandson of Abang Noeh and son of Abang Tella, the banished Bunut ruler.

The next kingdom downriver (as Enthoven's account begins in the Kapuas headwaters) is Selimbau. Enthoven (1903, I:156-63) traces its founding to a Dayak chief named Goentoer Badjoe Bindoeh; no date is given but this may well have been in the early 1700s. Following the founder were a string of Dayak chiefs--Adji, Abang Tedong, Abang Djambal, Abang Oepak, Abang Boedjang, Abang Ambal, Abang Tella, Abang Parah, Abang Goenoeng, Abang Teding, and Abang Mahidin who was the first chiefly convert to Islam. Abang Mahidin was succeeded by Abang Tadjak, the first ruler to take the title raja and who took the honorific, Soera di Laga Pakoe Negara. (This would appear to be the first ruler on von Gaffron's list.) His heir was his grandson, Abang Genah, who was succeeded by his own son, Abang Tadjak (the second on von Gaffron's list perhaps).

Next in line were Abang Keladi and Abang Sasap, followed by Abang Tella (who, in 1823, made a treaty with Commissioner Hartmann, the first Dutch official to travel that far up the Kapuas). His successor, Pangeran Hadji Mohammad Abas (von Gaffron's number 13), reigned for 48 years from 1830 and was much loved by Dutch officials from the frequent praise I have read in the archival documents. It was he (or Abang Tella--Enthoven is not clear here) who helped both Undup and Kantu' resettle along the Kapuas after continual raiding from the Skrang and Saribas. He was succeeded in 1878 by his son, Panembahan Hadji Moeda Agong Pakoe Negara, whose own son, Hadji Mohammad Osman, stood as heir to the throne in 1890. This history would also seem to confirm both the "everyday" use of abang and its relative antiquity in pre-Islamic West Borneo (and subsequent diminishment under increased Islamic and Dutch influence, at least among the rulers themselves).

Interestingly, Enthoven makes no mention of Pangeran Soema, who is number 12 on von Gaffron's list. He may well have been Abang Tella, the mother's brother of Pangeran Hadji Mohammed Abas, under an official title. Then there is the appearance of Abang Mohammad Djalaloedin, the ninth ruler, under whose reign Selimbau was sacked twice by huge Iban forces. Enthoven provides no dates here, but locates the first sacking at Pelembang where the capital had been since its founding. Von Gaffron's list is not much help, given either informational errors or name changes. However, from the oral histories I have collected from the Emperan Iban, I would place the attacks in the very late 18th or very early 19th centuries as they seem to have occurred under the leadership of Temenggong Simpi' Pala', one of the premier Ulu Ai'/Emperan tau' serang (war leaders) and the first Iban temenggong. (Simpi' Pala' is said to have magically stretched his blowpipe across the Kapuas to provide a bridge for the Iban attack.)

These particular details are important because in both local Iban and Malay oral histories of the sacking of Selimbau, the boy-heir to the throne is said to have been captured. As was Iban custom with child war-captives, a family adopted him and gave him the name Minsut. When he was an adult, the Selimbau Malays asked that he return to take the throne. They paid a ransom of two large ceramic jars filled with gold, and Minsut took the throne to become Pangeran Suma Raden Dra Abang Berita (Wadley 2002:323). Could Abang Tella, Pangeran Soema, and Minsut then have been the same person? The possibility is certainly intriguing though entirely speculative without additional evidence.

The Emperan Iban-Selimbau connection to the term abang is further established through an old wooden measuring bowl (kulak), an heirloom of a household in a community of Kecamatan Batang Lupar (Figure 2). (4) The bowl, measuring 15 cm. in height and 20 cm. in diameter, is said to have been given to a household ancestor by the raja of Selimbau. According to the household's oral history, the jawi script is said to read, "Ini gantang Apang Jail tulih abang amat raja Selimbau (this is the measuring bowl of Apang Jali written by [his] true abang, the ruler of Selimbau)." Apang they took to mean a Malayized version of the Iban apai or 'father,' which would indicate the recipient as Jinak, widely referred to as Apai Jali after his eldest son. Jim Collins (personal communication) indicates that apang is an old Kapuas teknonym equivalent to the Iban apai. (5) Here, it is the ruler of Selimbau who is portrayed as the relative superior through reference to his royal abang status, though Jinak was a well-known leader and manok sabong (literally, 'fighting cock' or war lieutenant) under the sponsorship of such tau' serang as Ngumbang and Temenggong Rentap (the second one of that name). Another interpretation of abang is the more prosaic meaning of elder brother or elder brother-in-law, which might reflect an attempt by Selimbau to mitigate future hostile relations with their long-time neighbors, sometime enemies and allies, and new economic competitors by emphasizing a fictive kinship relation or perhaps even referencing the Minsut story.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

To decipher the jawi script, I sent both a photo of the bowl and a rubbing I made of the script (Figure 3) to Michael Laffan (Princeton University) and Annabel Gallop (The British Library) to see what sense they could make of it. Though hard to read because of worm holes and stylistic flourishes, they were able to discern the following clearly enough:

Line 1: Ini gantang Apang Jali yang mem ... [here is the measuring container of Apang Jali who ...]

Line 2: t.w.s.w.k [tusuk?] ... ng raja Selimbau [... ruler of Selimbau]

Line 3: adanya ... [ ]

Date: 1306 [AD 1888/89]

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

According to Gallop (personal communication), this follows the style of metal household containers seen in Brunei of the same period, and the "mem ..." might refer to mempunyai or memerintah, indicating territorial jurisdiction. The date of 1888 solidifies this possibility: In the middle of that year, the Dutch held a formal peacemaking ceremony between Selimbau and Emperan Iban who had settled along the lower Leboyan River (see Wadley 2003:101). Because of ongoing disputes over access to commercial forest products involving both sides encroaching on the claims of the other, the Dutch brokered a settlement in which the boundary between them was set as the left bank of the Leboyan (looking downriver). At the time, Jinak's people had begun moving into the lower Leboyan from the Lanjak area following the devastation of the Kedang Expedition of 1886 (Wadley 2001, 2004). Following this peacemaking, more Iban moved into the lower Leboyan and more Malays moved more permanently into the Lakes, creating conflict as well as opportunities for intermarriage (Wadley 2003). Unfortunately, no abang is detectable in the script to confirm that part of the oral history.

Moving downriver from Selimbau, Enthoven (1903, I:178-80) traces the founding of the Suhaid kingdom (ignored by von Gaffron) to a certain Ripong, at about the time of Abang Tadjak's reign in Selimbau. Pangeran Soema di Laga Mangkoe Negara ruled there for around 75 years, having made the first treaty with the Dutch in 1823, and was succeeded by his son, Kesoema Anom Soerija Negara. No use of the term abang occurs in this short history, but it is likely to be there under the surface, given its ubiquity in neighboring and closely related kingdoms. This is much the same for Silat (1903, I:190-91), the next kingdom downriver: Various titles of pangeran, pangeran ratu, and pangeran perabu are evident, but not of abang, which accords with von Gaffron's list but may reflect a lessened effort to collect such details on the part of both men. The term abang certainly persists among lesser Malay nobles throughout the region, such as in the case of Abang Merdjoenit who, based in Semitau, was the Dutch government's point man for local affairs, both Malay and Dayak, in the late 19th century (1903, 1:221). He appears frequently in Dutch archival correspondences in relation to the ongoing Batang Loepar (Iban) problems of the period.

Generally regarded as the most powerful mid-river kingdom (at least in the nineteenth century), Sintang does not exhibit many instances of abang in its official genealogy as recorded by Ethnoven (1903, II: 540; agreeing with von Gaffron on this), though its line of early rulers are more often than not titled adi. This is not the case, however, for Sekadau and Belitang, which were generally considered to have been under Sintang's authority. In these two territories, abang is replete throughout their overlapping genealogies (1903, II:671-85). The same can be said for Sanggau, the kingdom to which Reece makes his link: Established by a Dayak leader, Babai Tjinga (who married a Hindu-Javanese woman named Dara Nanti from Sukadana), Sanggau was ruled by numerous abang, including Abang Awal (the fifth ruler and first Muslim ruler according to Reece's sources), Abang Djeni (sixth), Abang Oedjoe (eighth), Abang Sembilan Hari (ninth), Abang Saka (tenth), and Abang Angan (sixteenth); numerous lesser nobles titled abang are also present throughout the genealogy (1903, II:712-13).

This brief account of the use of abang in the middle and upper Kapuas River confirms Reece's contention that the existence of the honorific in Sarawak may be tied closely to its ubiquity in the Kapuas drainage. The close, but largely unexplored, links between north coast polities and those along the Kapuas would suggest sharing of a number of other cultural elements as well--other honorifics, perhaps, like dayang and adi. Indeed, the low-lying watershed (now the international border) and broad rivers on the south side have promoted considerable north-south intercourse, a fact which led the Dutch to worry about the influence of James Brooke on their territorial claims (Wadley 2001). (6) Within the middle and upper Kapuas kingdoms, with the exception of Sintang and Silat, abang occurs frequently, especially as a title for "everyday" use. It seems to have been pushed out in favor of increasingly more elaborate monikers over the years, under the influence of both Islam and Dutch succession ceremonies that seemed to favor such things. In addition, the retention of abang among lesser nobles into the late nineteenth century would seem to confirm the "everyday" nature of the term and its decline among the rulers.

Acknowledgements

The research on which this paper is based was funded by the International Institute for Asian Studies (Netherlands, 1998-2001) and sponsored in Indonesia by the Center for International Forestry Research (2000). Thanks to Bob Reece, Jim Collins, Michael Laffan, Annabel Gallop, and Oona Paredes (for putting me in contact with Laffan and Gallop).

References Cited

Enthoven, J. K. K. 1903 Bijdragen tot de Geographic van Borneo's Wester-afdeeling. Volumes I and II. Leiden: Brill.

Reece, Bob n.d. The Origins of the Sarawak Abang. To appear in a volume edited by James Chin.

Smith, F. Andrew 2005 Anthony Richards and the Search for Lawai: Myths, Maps, and History. Borneo Research Bulletin 36:51-67.

Wadley, Reed L. 2001 Trouble on the Frontier: Dutch-Brooke Relations and Iban Rebellion in the West Borneo Borderlands (1841-1886). Modern Asian Studies 35 (3):623-44.

2002 The History of Displacement and Forced Settlement in West Kalimantan, Indonesia: Implications for Co-managing Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve. In: D. Chatty and M. Colchester, eds., Conservation and Indigenous Mobile Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement and Sustainable Development. Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 313-28.

2003 Lines in the Forest: Internal Territorialization and Local Accommodation in West Kalimantan, Indonesia (1865-1979). South East Asia Research 11 (1):91-112.

2004 Punitive Expeditions and Divine Revenge: Oral and Colonial Histories of Rebellion and Pacification in Western Borneo, 1886-1902. Ethnohistory 51(3):609-36.

Reed L. Wadley

Department of Anthropology

University of Missouri-Columbia

Columbia MO 65211 USA

(1) The spread of Islam into the interior was indeed slow: In 1823, Hartmann observed of the "poor" upper Kapuas rulers, that they were far from the teachings of Mohamed ("Deze arme vorstjes verre afzijn de leer van Mohamed") despite their claims to being Muslim; Register der Handelingen en verrigtingen van de Provisionele Gezaghebber ter Westkust Borneo, C. Hartmann, Pontianak, 23 mei 1823 t/m 13 augustus 1825, Department of Historical Documentation, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde.

(2) Algemeen Verslag, Afdeeling Sintang, 1856, submitted by H. von Gaffron, 28 February 1857: West Borneo Inventory No. 45/Doc. No. 17, Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (ANRI), Jakarta.

(3) What is most curious about these lists is that they do not match up well with subsequent records (e.g., Enthoven 1903); whether the result of changed names or bad information, it is impossible to tell.

(4) This item is strictly an heirloom and was not used in the collection of rice taxes; the Emperan Iban at this time were taxed directly by the Dutch authorities and had never been under the jurisdiction of Selimbau or any other Malay polity (Wadley 2004).

(5) Collins notes that variants apa and apa' are in widespread use among non-Ibanic languages throughout West Kalimantan, and I have heard apa 'among Emperan Iban in address to adult males in paternal or avuncular roles.

(6) These geographic facts--the low-lying watershed and broad rivers on the south side--appear to have been one of the keys to the development of over a dozen small polities along the Kapuas, no one of them being able to control the entire river system or even large stretches of it. Points of access to the north coast and what is now Central Kalimantan were numerous and hard to monitor. It was not until the Dutch brought steamships in the 1860s and started regular patrols that this native advantage began to disappear.