ASCA National Model[R]: the foundation for supervision of practicum and internship students.

Providing quality supervision for student counselors in pre-K-12 school settings is both a responsibility and a challenge for professionals in the field. While the ASCA National Model[R] for School Counseling Programs provides a detailed structure for school counseling programs, it does not explicitly include a supervision element within its four basic components. This article presents a unique supervision format and training model specifically developed within the framework of the ASCA National Model.

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Quality supervision of school counseling practicum and internship students is critical if they are to be prepared to meet the challenges of the 21st century. Incorporating supervision into the ASCA National Model[R] for School Counseling Programs (American School Counselor Association, 2005a) provides a seamless structure that enhances the supervision process and strengthens the quality of school counseling programs. As gatekeepers of the profession, on-site supervisors also assume the role of mentor and provide focused support for counseling students who aspire to become professional school counselors (Roberts & Morotti, 2001).

The purpose of this article is twofold. First, it is to present a unique format for supervision of school counseling students and a supervision training model for professional school counselors who have voluntarily embraced the leadership role to be on-site supervisors for student counselors participating in practicum and internship field experiences. Second, it is to describe a counselor education program's practicum and internship courses, the supervision involved within those courses, and a supervision training model--all developed and structured within the four components of the ASCA National Model (2005a). These are presented for the purpose of presenting a model of the concepts described in this article.

RATIONALE FOR SUPERVISION AND TRAINING MODEL

Much has been written about clinical supervision (e.g., Bernard & Goodyear, 2004; Herlihy, Gray, & McCollum, 2002; Nelson, Johnson, & Thorngren, 2000; Pearson, 2001; Roberts & Morotti, 2001; Spruill & Benshoff, 1996), but professional literature on supervision of school counseling interns within the framework of the ASCA National Model has been nonexistent. Studer (2005) cited examples of supervisory activities for each of the four ASCA components (Foundation, Delivery System, Management, and Accountability) but fell short of actually using the ASCA National Model as an integral part of the overall school counseling program and the supervisory experience.

The importance of the supervision format and training model described in this article is clear; up until now, there have been no supervision formats or supervision training models using the ASCA National Model as their structural basis. While the ASCA National Model delineates specific components and subcomponents, providing a detailed and professional framework for school counseling programs, it does not explicitly include supervision within its structure. Likewise, there is no specific focus on supervision within ASCA's (2004) Ethical Standards for School Counselors. Detailed ethical guidelines for supervision are found in the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision's (ACES) Ethical Guidelines for Counseling Supervisors (1993). These latter guidelines provide direction for supervision of student counselor development in all academic and clinical settings. ACES designates specific requirements for clinical supervision. It stresses the importance of competence to supervise, boundaries of the supervisory relationships, confidentiality, accountability and liability, and evaluation. ACES does not offer a model of supervision training one should implement when training and supervising counseling students. The on-site supervisor determines the model of supervision to be used. It is usually based on one's own prior supervision experience or supervision training.

DEFINITION OF SUPERVISION

Before one can determine what model of supervision to use, a clear explanation of the term must first be presented. What is supervision? Bernard and Goodyear (2004) offered a succinct definition:

   A means of transmitting the skills, knowledge,
   and attitudes of a particular profession to the
   next generation of that profession. This relationship
   is evaluative, extends over time, and
   has the simultaneous purpose of enhancing
   the professional functioning of the junior
   member(s), monitoring the quality of services
   offered, and serving as a gatekeeper for those
   who are to enter the particular profession.
   (p. 6)

Without consistent supervision, the student counselor's counseling skills tend to decline or stay the same. The on-site supervisor must offer timely, constructive, and consistent feedback, allowing for the mutual sharing of ideas and challenging assumptions. Supervision provides a basis for one's professional standards and helps the student counselor develop and maintain clinical skills appropriate for school counseling. Supervision creates a context where learning can occur. Relationship factors are as important as technical skills in determining the effectiveness of supervision. On-site supervisors must embody a sense of respect, honesty, trustworthiness, and responsiveness (Baltimore & Crutchfield, 2003).

Understanding what supervision means and perceiving the importance of the relationship component in supervision are only the beginning of the supervision process. Selecting and implementing a model of supervision is critical for an organized, intentional, and grounded approach to training school counseling students.

MODELS OF SUPERVISION

There are three basic categories of clinical supervision models (Bernard & Goodyear, 2004). The first category, psychotherapy-based models, is based on the use of specific theories of psychotherapy. A study done by Putney, Worthington, and McCullough (1992) concluded that the style or role of the supervisor is influenced by the supervisor's theoretical orientation. The second category, developmental models, has two basic underlying assumptions: (a) The supervisor must be aware of the student counselor/supervisee's process of moving toward competence through a series of stages that are qualitatively different from one another, and (b) each student counselor/supervisee's developmental stage requires a qualitatively different supervision environment if the most favorable professional growth is to occur (Chagnon & Russell, 1995). Stoltenberg, McNeil, and Delworth's (1998) Integrated Developmental Model is a prominent developmental model commonly used. It not only describes the training process but also describes the types of supervisory interventions to be used.

The third category, social role models, focuses on the roles that on-site supervisors engage in during supervision. The primary range of roles includes administrator, counselor, consultant, evaluator, facilitator, and teacher (Bernard, 1979; Carroll, 1996; Holloway, 1995; Williams, 1995). It is while portraying these roles that on-site supervisors address specific focus areas for the student counselors/ supervisees, and thus, professional growth occurs for the supervisees.

The use of the discrimination model (Bernard, 1979; Bernard & Goodyear, 2004), one example of the social role model, is ideal for professional school counselors to use as on-site supervisors. The discrimination model provides categories of discriminations, or options, that supervisors use when training student counselors throughout their clinical field experiences. Its emphasis on the three roles of the supervisor (teacher, counselor, and consultant) is constant while the on-site supervisors address four areas of focus--intervention, conceptualization, personalization, and professional behaviors and standards. (Note: The fourth focus, professional behaviors and standards, was Lanning's [1986] adaptation to the discrimination model.)

When determining what role will be prominent at any one time during supervision, it is helpful to consider the purpose, or goal, of the role. Supervisors as teachers determine what is critical for the student counselors/supervisees to learn during the clinical field experience, giving information, instruction, and guidance to the student counselor/supervisee. It is in this role that on-site supervisors also must evaluate the student counselors/supervisees, giving regular verbal and written feedback of student counselors/supervisees' strengths and areas for growth.

When on-site supervisors are engaged in the counselor role, they help student counselors/supervisees focus on interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. This supervisory role is especially important when helping student counselors/supervisees conduct a self-evaluation. It is also critical in order for student counselors/supervisees to effectively communicate with pre-K-12 students and others at their sites.

Supervisors assume the role of consultant when the supervisor and the student counselor/supervisee relate as colleagues. They exchange ideas about interventions, goals, and program plans.

In addition to the three roles of supervision, the supervisor has four basic focus areas. On-site supervisors address these focus areas in order to assess their student counselors/supervisees' skills. When focusing on intervention, on-site supervisors help student counselors/supervisees improve the type of clinical interventions used during a counseling session. (Does the student counselor/supervisee have the correct counseling skills and techniques to address the pre-K-12 students' issues?)

On-site supervisors focus on conceptualization when they want to determine how well student counselors/supervisees understand what is going on in the counseling session. Supervisors are focusing on conceptualization when examining questions such as "Is the student counselor/supervisee able to articulate the correct areas to be addressed?" and "Can the student counselor/supervisee communicate the appropriate interventions that would best help the pre-K-12 student in his or her particular situation?"

Personalization addresses the personal counseling style that student counselors/supervisees implement when working with pre-K-12 students to ensure that the style is consistent with a professional approach. In this focus area, supervisors consider questions such as "Does the student counselor/supervisee understand boundary issues and the importance of avoiding counter-transference responses?" and "Does the student counselor/supervisee know the importance of limiting or avoiding self-disclosure statements?"

The focus by on-site supervisors on professional behaviors and standards of the student counselors/ supervisees is constant throughout the entire clinical field experience. This concentration highlights the need for student counselors/supervisees to model ethical behavior and demonstrate appropriate professional demeanor and attire. Questions to be considered in this area include "Does the student counselor/supervisee exhibit, on a consistent basis, through verbal and nonverbal behavior, the professional standards commensurate with the role of the professional school counselor?" "Does the student counselor/supervisee model leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and systemic change?" and "Does the student counselor/supervisee consistently wear suitable professional attire?"

OTHER VARIABLES IN SUPERVISION

Other variables also influence the type of supervision used and the supervisor-supervisee relationship. Benshoff (2003) stressed the importance of recognizing that process variables (supervision stages and the student counselor/supervisee's development) may affect the supervision process. He also highlighted constant variables that are evident in supervision such as gender, age, race, ethnicity, and personality characteristics. The cultural beliefs held by the on-site supervisor and the student counselor/ supervisee pertaining to diversity issues impact all aspects of supervision and counseling (Helms & Cook, 1999). It is critical that the on-site supervisor and the student counselor/supervisee discuss their diversity perspectives in order for professional growth to occur (Aponte & Wohl, 2000). The fundamental question that the supervisor needs to determine should be "Is the student counselor/ supervisee a culturally competent counselor?"

Once the supervision roles, foci, and variables are understood by the on-site supervisor, it is time to put them within the context of the ASCA National Model (2005a). The following section discusses how one counselor education program uses the ASCA National Model as the basis for its unique supervision format and supervision workshop training.

SUPERVISION WITHIN ASCA NATIONAL MODEL

The American School Counselor Association is the flagship national organization for professional school counselors. In order to have uniform quality programs, policies, and procedures, it is critical that school counselors adhere to ASCA's standards, position statements, and program framework (ASCA, 2005b). Additionally, ASCA has developed a thoughtful, detailed, and professional structure to further assist professional school counselors: the ASCA National Model (2005a).

The ASCA National Model was developed to

   provide the mechanism with which school
   counselors and school counseling teams will
   design, coordinate, implement, manage and
   evaluate their programs for students' success.
   It provides a framework for the program components,
   the school counselor's role in implementation,
   and the underlying philosophies of
   leadership, advocacy, and systemic change.
   (ASCA, 2005a, p. 9)

Professional school counselors assume the responsibility and the challenge of simultaneously managing their school counseling programs per the ASCA National Model while they authenticate that student counselors are trained in the correct method of the implementation of these programs. Relying on their professional organization's direction for effecting change within their school communities, professional school counselors who assume the leadership role of being on-site supervisors position themselves to be in the unique role of modeling quality leadership ability to prospective new counselors.

One counselor education program has developed a supervision training workshop for on-site supervisors that infuses the ASCA National Model (2005a) into its training. Each semester practicing professional school counselors who will supervisor student counselors are invited to a half-day training workshop provided by two counselor educators. The five goals of this training model are (a) to train practicing school counselors to be on-site supervisors and to supervise student counselors, (b) to inform on-site supervisors about practicum and internship assignments, (c) to outline basic field experiences required of the student counselors, (d) to briefly review a pre-K-12 practicum/internship manual (Murphy, 2005), and (e) to introduce the ASCA National Model.

INTRODUCTION TO SUPERViSiON TRAiNiNG

The supervision training begins with an overview of the ASCA National Model (2005a). Because it is infused into all school counseling coursework in this graduate school counseling program, the student counselors have been prepared to use the ASCA National Model as a basis for program development, service provision, and decision-making. Therefore, educating the on-site supervisors about the ASCA National Model is essential to successful site experiences. When asked about their level of familiarity with the ASCA National Model, typically many of the participating on-site supervisors confess that while they have heard about it, their knowledge about it is superficial. The beauty of the ASCA National Model is that it can be described briefly, and it immediately makes sense to practicing school counselors. Once they see that the ASCA National Model is not a new program to learn, or another thing to squeeze into their busy days, but a framework for organizing what they already do, they are both relieved and engaged.

As the four components of the ASCA National Model (Foundation, Delivery System, Management System, and Accountability) are presented, the assignments and field experiences that are connected to each component also are described. This process seems to be very helpful to the on-site supervisors and provides them with examples of the components. It also provides critical information about how to shape the field experience for the student counselors.

All of the evidence of the student counselor's field experience is collected in a professional portfolio that is begun during an introductory graduate course, Principles & Practices of School Counseling. Students learn early in their master's program to organize their portfolios according to the ASCA National Model. When they start their field experiences, each assignment and all evidence of the field experience are placed in the appropriate ASCA National Model sections.

Foundation

The Foundation is the first ASCA National Model component presented during the supervision training. All aspects of Foundation are reviewed: beliefs and philosophy, mission statement, domains, and the ASCA national standards/competencies (ASCA, 2005a). To show the relevance of applying Foundation components, the mission statement of the counselor education program also is introduced. The mission statement (highlighting leadership, multicultural counseling, advocacy, and social justice) is the cornerstone of the counseling master's program, and, therefore, it is important to share with the on-site supervisors the belief system in which the student counselors have been trained. The student counselors are required to write a school counseling mission statement, a role statement, a theoretical orientation paper, and a paper discussing a current school counseling issue. These are placed in the Foundation section of the portfolio. Also included in Foundation are a school counseling brochure, an office floor plan, and a professional library bibliography that students have developed during their internship experience.

Delivery System

The Delivery System is the second ASCA National Model component presented during the supervision training. School guidance curricula, individual planning, and system support are briefly described. In the Delivery System section, the student counselors will include guidance units they have developed and a referral list specific to the school site. They also may include evidence of their participation in parent education activities, group counseling, crisis response, and individual counseling.

Embedded within the Delivery System component, in the system support subcomponent, are the underlying elements of supervision. The on-site supervisors are asked to recall the training they received as student counselors and whether they have had any supervision training since becoming a professional school counselor. Not surprising, many respond that, while they might have had adequate training during their internship, they have received little or no training in how to supervise others.

Weekly supervision meetings with the student counselor and the on-site supervisor are critical to the overall growth of the student's field experience. The weekly supervision time (scheduled for 1 hour a week, either in a 60-minute block or two 30-minute blocks) is an essential professional growth experience for the student counselor (ACES, 1993). Formal supervision meetings enrich the field experience and pull everything together for the student counselor.

During the supervision meetings, the on-site supervisor focuses on the student counselor's areas of strength and areas for growth. They both review the student counselor's log of hours to ensure that a variety of experiences are incorporated into the field experience over the course of the semester. The on-site supervisor and the student counselor use supervision time to also complete short- and long-term planning for the school counseling program. These activities are accomplished by using the discrimination model (Bernard & Goodyear, 2004) to help the on-site supervisor focus on the tasks and functions of quality supervision.

The on-site supervisor concentrates on the four areas of focus outlined earlier. First, the supervisor addresses the student counselor's interventions or counseling performance skills. He or she then asks the student counselor to articulate specific case conceptualizations (i.e., cognitive counseling skills regarding the pre-K-12 student's situation). During supervision, the on-site supervisor also focuses on the third area, the student counselor's personalization (i.e., how the supervisee's personality or personal issues affect the counseling process). And last, the on-site supervisor monitors the student counselor's professional behaviors and standards. This is to ensure that the student counselor models an ethically sound and culturally competent approach.

The supervisor addresses these focus areas by alternately using the discrimination model's three roles (Bernard & Goodyear, 2004): teacher, counselor, and consultant. While one role may be primary, all three roles may come into play during a supervision session.

As previously discussed, in the role of teacher, supervisors appraise what the student counselor needs to learn. Evaluation of the student counselor is also part of the responsibilities of this role. When supervisors assume the role of counselor, they address the interpersonal facet of the student counselor. In the function as a consultant, the third role used in the discrimination model, the on-site supervisor acknowledges the collegial relationship with the student counselor. The student counselor is encouraged to offer suggestions for treatment of the pre-K-12 student and to make suggestions for programmatic changes. The supervisor and the student counselor have a mutually respectful relationship in which both benefit.

It takes skill, training, practice, and learning to think like a supervisor (Benshoff; 2003) and to effectively supervise student counselors. Borders and Leddick (1987) also stressed the importance of key supervisory competencies for effective supervision. These proficiencies include conceptual knowledge of the supervisory process, implementation of various direct interventions skills, strong facilitative and communication skills, and positive personal traits (commitment, encouragement, openness, sensitivity to supervisees' needs, and recognition of individual differences).

Addressing a student counselor's resistance, avoidance, or conflict is another key part of the supervision training (Nelson & Friedlander, 2001). It is important that on-site supervisors understand that these behaviors are normal reactions for some beginning student counselors. During the training, on-site supervisors are given various role-play scenarios, to illustrate some situations that may occur during student counselors' practicum and internship experiences. Specific techniques are offered to assist in addressing these expected behaviors (Liddle, 1986; Masters, 1992). Supervisors are encouraged to describe and interpret the resistance and to offer specific feedback to the student counselor in order to clarify and restate the behavior. The supervisors are encouraged to use positive framing when describing the supervisee's resistant behavior. This empowers student counselors, increases their self-esteem, and models effective methods of dealing with cognitions, feelings, and behaviors.

Use of role-play scenarios during supervision helps the on-site supervisor and the student counselor to identify the cause of resistant behaviors. Some on-site supervisors have suggested audio-taping the supervision sessions so that the student counselors not only have a record of feedback, but also can hear their responses. The supervision training stresses the importance of involving the university supervisor for any concerns. It is important that on-site supervisors fully understand that they are not alone in the supervision of student counselors. A collaborative partnership must exist between the university supervisor and the on-site school counseling supervisor.

Ethical and legal issues in clinical supervision are the final and perhaps most important components of the supervision training in the Delivery section. The Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (1993) delineates ethical guidelines for counseling supervisors that include competence to supervise, boundaries of the supervisory relationship, confidentiality, accountability and liability, and evaluation. These concepts are thoroughly discussed and on-site supervisors are, again, given a chance to role-play various scenarios to illustrate some of the issues that may occur between the on-site supervisor and the student counselor.

ACES also provides direction for legal issues, which are thoroughly discussed in the supervision training. On-site supervisors are asked to reflect on a common ethical dilemma question, "Who is the client?" Ethically, the client is the student in a preK-12 academic setting; legally, because the student is a minor, the client is the parent. This reality has direct implications for honoring the confidentiality of the pre-K-12 student. On-site supervisors are frequently challenged when student counselors/supervisees are first beginning. Their graduate training has certainly stressed this issue, but putting it into practice is frequently problematic for inexperienced student counselors.

Another legal issue stressed in the supervision training is direct liability. This means that the on-site supervisor is legally responsible for all of the student counselor's actions at the school site. The impact of this issue underscores the need for quality supervision and supervision training.

It is at this point in the training workshop that the on-site supervisors are asked another question: "How many of you have professional counseling liability insurance?" A surprising number of professional school counselors reply that they rely solely on their school districts' liability insurance. Today's society is a very litigious one. School counselors are often unaware that their school districts' liability policies are often limited. The supervision training stresses the fact that ASCA understands the legal importance of supporting its membership and now includes professional liability coverage with ASCA membership. This coverage includes the supervision of student counselors.

Benshoff (2003) summarized the essence of an exemplary supervisor with this statement: "Supervision is the question asked, rather than the answer given." A good supervisor knows that the more supervisees are engaged in the process, the more they will benefit and grow. Benshoff emphasized the importance of how critical a supervisor's questions can be for the supervisee. It is through quality and intentional supervision that student counselors learn how to conduct themselves in a manner consistent with their professional standards, critically analyze their own efforts, and mature from the constructive feedback of their on-site supervisors (ACES, 1993).

Management System

The presentation of the third ASCA National Model component addressed during the supervision training, Management System, consists of a discussion of management agreements, planning, an advisory council, and use of data for systemic change. On-site supervisors say they plan their yearly school counseling programs around the school calendar, but most are unfamiliar with management agreements, use of data, and advisory councils. Discussing the components of the Management System with practicing school counselors provides an excellent opportunity to ask them to think about how they communicate with administrators about their program goals, how their programs connect to the mission of the school, and how they collaborate with stakeholders. On-site supervisors teach by example when considering and implementing these elements.

For the Management System section of their portfolio, student counselors provide examples of management-related evidence at their sites and examples of their participation and involvement. For example, they might include a copy of their on-site supervisor's planning calendar or examples of data collection strategies.

Accountability

The fourth, and last, ASCA National Model component addressed within the supervision training, Accountability, is the component with which many on-site supervisors are least familiar. While they understand that schools are in an era of accountability, collecting and disaggregating data have not been part of their counselor role. Accountability is described in terms of the three purposes of using data: to monitor student progress, to assess counseling programs, and to demonstrate counselor effectiveness. Each student counselor includes the accountability project that he or she completed at the site, a self-reflection of the experience, and the on-site supervisor's evaluation of the student counselor's performance. Student counselors also may include evidence of a program audit or results data collected by the on-site supervisor.

The accountability project that is completed during both semesters of the field experiences (practicum and internship) represents the clearest example of how the ASCA National Model framework is used to evaluate programs and understand educational issues in schools. Each student counselor, in collaboration with the on-site supervisor, chooses an aspect of the site's school counseling program to evaluate. Sometimes the student counselor conducts a needs assessment to determine what new programs or services are needed at the school. Examples of projects include an evaluation of a career day program, a needs assessment concerning staff diversity training, and the effectiveness of an 8-week counseling group. Once the purpose of the project is agreed upon, the student counselor develops the instruments needed to collect the information, gains approval from administration, gathers the data, analyzes the data (and may use Microsoft Excel charts to organize the findings), makes recommendations based on the data, and prepares the documents for a presentation to the on-site supervisor or others at the school. The process of using data to understand school counseling-related educational issues is new to many on-site supervisors, but they are quick to see the power of data.

CONCLUSION OF SUPERVISION TRAINING

The training concludes with time for on-site supervisors to talk about the ASCA National Model, to ask questions about their responsibilities, to discuss the requirements of the site experience, and to reflect on the benefits of the supervision training experience. The on-site supervisors then are asked to complete an evaluation of the supervision training.

In keeping with ASCA's focus on accountability and data collection, the supervisor training sessions also should be evaluated. What follows is a description of the evaluation and the quantitative results from three recent supervision workshops using the model presented in this article (responses are from 69 attendees). The first section of the evaluation asked the participants to answer six questions and rank the supervision training, using a Likert scale of 1-5. The six questions and the attendees' responses are as follows:

1. This training was very useful. (80% strongly agreed, 20% agreed.)

2. The format of the training was well organized. (80% strongly agreed, 20% agreed.)

3. The presenters seemed very knowledgeable about school counseling supervision issues. (94% strongly agreed, 6% agreed.)

4. The ASCA presentation was informative. (78% strongly agreed, 20% agreed, 2% unsure.)

5. The supervision workshop materials will be a useful resource. (78% strongly agreed, 20% agreed, 2% unsure.)

6. I recommend this training to other on-site school counseling supervisors. (80% strongly agreed, 20% agreed.)

In addition to these six questions, the on-site supervisors were asked to respond to two open-ended questions. The first--"What three things have you learned from today's workshop?"--provides concrete examples of lessons learned in the workshop. The second open-ended question--"What other support or information would be helpful to you as an on-site school counseling supervisor?"--provides the presenters with specific areas to improve upon during the next set of supervision training workshops.

CONCLUSION

Providing quality supervision to student counselors is critical to their future success as professional school counselors. The reality is that most on-site supervisors assume the responsibilities of supervising a counseling student without previous supervision training. The best way to assure that on-site supervisors are prepared, and that student counselors are receiving the highest quality of supervision, consistent with the guidelines provided by professional counseling organizations, is to conduct ongoing supervision training with all site supervisors. As school counseling programs and counselor education programs adopt the ASCA National Model (2005a) as the framework for their school counseling programs, it is essential that the model be infused into the training. The supervision training described in this article is incorporated into the ASCA National Model, and it is based on the discrimination model of supervision, which emphasizes the roles of teacher, consultant, and counselor. The training provides on-site supervisors with the opportunities to increase their supervision skills while learning about the ASCA National Model.

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Sally Murphy, Ph.D., is an associate professor and clinical coordinator, and Carol Kaffenberger, Ph.D., is an associate professor and program coordinator, with the Counseling & Development Program, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA. E-mail: [e-mail]