AGEING IN (A NEW ZEALAND) PLACE: ETHNOGRAPHY, POLICY AND PRACTICE.

INTRODUCTION

The promotion, enhancement and maintenance of "independence" and "ageing in Place" have been fundamental themes in policy and practice relating to older people in New Zealand for at least the last ten years. A recent report (National Health Committee, 1999) identifies both of these fundamental themes and shows them to have become increasingly explicit in guiding policy and practice development since the publication from the Ministries of Health and Social Welfare (1992).

However, "independence" and "ageing in place" have been little examined in terms of what they might mean for older people themselves in New Zealand communities. At the same time, these themes and slogans have attracted anthropological curiosity, and a recent study in Mosgiel has presented an ethnographic approach to ageing in a particular South Island town.

This work derives a "three-dimensional view" of independence from the complex ways in which a group of 80-90-year-olds talk about their personal sense of independence, their social context, and the personal resources of health and wealth at their disposal (Keeling 1998a). Each of these three dimensions (the personal, the social and the resource-based) contributes to a holistic and dynamic view of independence.

A close examination of independence and ageing in this particular community shows that the two themes of "independence" and "ageing in place" merge almost to the point of tautology. In other words, this research is grounded in the local features of the landscape, township and in the lifetimes of the research participants. The majority of those involved in the qualitative aspects of the study have spent their lives in the southern part of the South Island, and have lived in Mosgiel for at least the last ten years.(2)

MOSGIEL LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF AGEING

The Mosgiel Longitudinal Study of Ageing (MLSA) was first launched in 1988, and has been described as "an investigation of cardiovascular risk factors, nutrition, disability and social support networks in the total population of the area 70 years and over" (Campbell 1997:132). The project was established with the aims of making a unique contribution to gerontological research at the local, national and international levels. Mosgiel was chosen as the site for this research project, on ageing in a community setting, on the grounds that its findings could be indicative (although not representative) of national patterns. Occupational class and property values indicated a predominantly Pakeha, middle class, retired community without extremes of poverty or wealth, and the age distribution of the sample was very similar to the country as a whole (Campbell et al. 1993, 1994:75).

The study at the outset covered the entire population in the community aged 70 years and older. The response rate was 91%. Baseline data was obtained from the 761 subjects over the period 1988-91. At the first follow-up (in 1991), 557 subjects were seen again, although the questionnaires on social factors were not included at this time. The six-year follow-up took place from 1994-96, and involved 313 subjects.

Mosgiel's relatively small scale and geographic boundedness made it amenable to anthropological approaches of study, ranging from participant observation to detailed interviews with individuals. Mosgiel is identifiable by virtue of its association with the MSLA epidemiological project, and therefore has not been deliberately "masked" in this account. Individual respondents in this study have, however, been assigned pseudonyms to protect their identity and to respect the confidentiality agreed to in the study.

COMMUNITY STUDIES: AGEING IN PLACE

A useful complementary paper to this work is Joseph and Chalmers (1995). This study relates the perceptions of older people in two Waikato towns - Tirau and Morrinsville - of the processes of rural restructuring and service closure experienced over the last ten years. Joseph and Chalmers explore the perceptions of people growing old in Tirau and Morrinsville, and the "objective" impacts of economic and social restructuring.

In recent years, Southland community settings have been well explored by Smith and McMath (1988), Smith (1989), and Lovelock (1993). While ageing in a community context has received limited attention in any previously published anthropological research in this country, geographers in New Zealand and elsewhere have consistently been interested in the interface between place and health (Gesler 1991, Kearns and Gesler 1998).

By locating the study in a specific community, and by relating to issues in public policy and practice at a national level, it is hoped to address some of the traditional problems of idiosyncratic description and limited generalisability identified as inherent in the genre of community studies (Pearson 1994). While studying the social networks of older people was the stated "entry point" for this research, the resulting report is presented around the three-dimensional construct of independence, giving strong emphasis to "home" and being set very explicitly in a local context, against a national policy backdrop (Keeling 1998a).

I argue that detailed ethnographic studies of ageing in particular communities contribute specificity and detail to the more general understanding of policy and practice relating to older people. This level of understanding has been missing to date in New Zealand (cf. Koopman-Boyden 1993, Statistics New Zealand 1997, 1998).

MOSGIEL: "THE PEARL OF THE PLAIN"

Those who approach the city of Dunedin by air are familiar with the location of Mosgiel today as they see first the roadside Welcome to Dunedin sign and, shortly afterwards, note a hillside hoarding saying MOSGIEL. Older people who have lived in the region for much of their lives recall an earlier hoarding which presented Mosgiel as The Pearl of the Plain (Bell and Lyall 1995). The multiple meanings of this term and its intended pun on the spelling and meaning of purl and plain, reflected the image of the town, nestled at the neck of the Taieri Planes, as the then home of the nationally renowned Mosgiel Woollen Mills, and of the orientation of Mosgiel more to its rural plains hinterland for much of its history rather than to its more cosmopolitan city neighbour.

The slogan that introduces this section thus links history with geographic and local identity. Mosgiel is settled into the northern end of the Taieri Planes, and on three sides is edged by hills. Mosgiel was one of New Zealand's communities that exemplified the growth and expansion of the 1950s. The availability of flat land for residential and commercial development was an important advantage for Mosgiel, as was its relationship with both rural and urban sector enterprises. In more recent years, while "family homes" have become larger and more luxurious, there has been the parallel development of the one- or two-bedroom unit or flat, built in permanent, low-maintenance materials.

The role of the woollen processing mill over one hundred years of operation in the district represents in an emblematic way the changing commercial waves of fortune over time (see Nicholson 1998:178ff). The receivership of the company in 1980 is described as a "most traumatic event in Mosgiel's history" (Kirk 1985:189). The changing fates of clothing manufacturing, agriculture, engineering, domestic appliance production, and mining throughout the twentieth century are threads woven through Mosgiel's history, and through the interviews with the older people who had participated in the employment sector and business life of the town over this same period.

The population of Mosgiel in 1991 was 11,022, which represents a 1% increase in the period 1986-1991 (Statistics New Zealand 1992). By comparison, the Dunedin area total population was 114,276, and experienced a lesser growth rate, of 0.49%, in the same period (Dunedin City Council 1995:22). In terms of the age composition of the Mosgiel population in 1991, 16% of the population is over 65, while the rate in that age group for the wider Dunedin area is 12.9%.

INDEPENDENCE IN MOSGIEL

The key feature to arise from the study was the idea of independence. There were many different ways in which assertions and statements of independence appeared in respondents' interviews, sometimes in unexpected contexts. Their talk about independence shows the complexity, prominence and continuity of the idea of independence in the context of both their present and past situations. Here, in the main body of the paper, I explore aspects of independence and how independence is articulated by research participants.

This approach owes much to Arber and Evandrou (1993), and particularly to Pickard (1995), for her ethnographic and interpretive approach to ageing in a community setting. In the anthropological component of the Mosgiel study, extended open-ended interviews with participants were carried out in the week following the second follow-up interviews in the epidemiological study. These interviews were taped and transcribed. Inductive analysis of these interviews was carried out through manual coding, comparison and interpretation (see Keeling 1998a:116). The thematic framework was built up out of this detailed process, and the extracts from interviews presented here illustrate directly some of the sources and grounding on which this process is based.

Mrs Allen

After talking in a reflective way about Mosgiel and how it had changed over the years, Mrs Allen shifted the balance to refer both to her independence, and to the contributions she had made to the community herself in the past.

   "Let me tell you, I've mowed my little bit of lawn right up till a
   fortnight ago ... and it was the idea in years gone by, that if your
   neighbours were sick ... I'd take a kiddie in for a few days until they got
   better, and it was just the way of life, and it was simple."

In this example, Mrs Allen links past "in years gone by" and present "right up till a fortnight ago" in a "simple" philosophy which reflects the idea that independence and interdependence are maintained throughout life, and that independence is based on simple reciprocity. Individual responsibility ("my little bit of lawn") is linked with community involvement ("I'd take a kiddie in").

Mrs Fletcher

In a different example, Mrs Fletcher's interview shows how a series of reflections on her present situation and past life-changes are linked by a thread of awareness about her own aloneness (personal independence), her social context (the social dimension) and practical ways of enhancing independence (using resources of health and wealth). Her narrative provides a good example of three-dimensional independence. In the following excerpt, references to her sense of independence are bold. They relate to her sense of self, aloneness and loss, friendship with peers and others, social support and resources.

   "I've got a very good young friend, too, whose mother and I are great
   friends, ... and she pops in, so I'm not without contact. But I still need
   time alone. ... I've always been used to a busy life and people, and with
   five children I've always been used to a lot of company, and then they went
   one by one, and suddenly there's no one there.

   "And when your husband dies, and you're left, and it's the most awful gap
   imaginable. It really is, it's never the same and it can't be. ... I didn't
   know of course, I suppose ... well I knew my life would change, but I
   didn't ever learn to drive a car. Shame on me ... I still don't go out at
   night, very rarely, because it's the silence in the house. You come home,
   and you go to bed, and there's nobody breathing in the bed. Never mind, you
   do learn to adjust, you have to, you do have to go on. ... No, I wouldn't
   want him back, he suffered you know, with stroke, and a blood clot, and
   then his heart, he struggled on -- no, no. [SK: asking after their children
   ...] They'd all gone then, gone their own ways, to develop their lives --
   I'm sure he just waited ... as soon as Tim was married, he died. ... I
   think he just hung on, to see that Tim was settled. ... that's just me,
   that's just the way I think ... I just can't see any more of my children
   because they are away, so I have to accept it as it is, I've got no choice
   have l?

   "... I'm probably far too independent.... probably too independent, that's
   me, can't do much about that ... Oh, yes, I've been round a long time,
   Sally. (Laughter) ... let's face it some older people have a lot to put up
   with, not very pleasant you know.... Oh, gosh, I'm baring my soul, aren't
   I?"

This sustained extract shows complex variations on the theme of independence, and its significance and complexity. The speaker expresses loneliness beginning with the death of her husband, and the movement of her children out of Mosgiel, yet she rationalises and diminishes the fact that she is "too independent" and has been so for a long time, with her laughter. Her comment that she has been around a long time could be taken to mean "too Long" to change now, or "long enough" to acquire wisdom and experience. She recognises the mixed images of old age which surround her, and also that her present experiences as an older person are coloured by her younger life. She is mildly surprised at the extent to which she has revealed herself by "baring her soul". She admits that despite knowing her life would change, she did not prepare for this by developing her skills and resources of mobility by learning to drive. Self-acceptance and lack of interference with her children's life-plans are also clearly evident.

Mrs Murray et al.

In contrast, many of the other informants express their sense of independence and their selfhood much more simply, with expressions like "that's just me" and "I've always been like that". At times, this was very personal, while at others, it incorporated a thread of familial identity:(3) "we were brought up that way" and "our family is all like that".

Several people expressed quite succinctly a philosophical approach to their situation, and acknowledged both that their lifetimes were not infinite, and that "here" has meaning at several levels. For example, "I'm glad I'm here. Hope I'll be here for a wee while yet. So, you know, every day is a bonus, they tell you now" (Mrs Murray). In this context, "here" is understood variously to mean "alive", in Mosgiel, and in her own home. Time and place are linked in the context of Mrs Murray's comment.

INDEPENDENCE AND LIVING SITUATION

To provide a picture of the context within which interviewees are talking about their independence, I will pause in my analysis of their words to consider their living situations.

The baseline study in 1988 and the six-year follow-up in 1994 offer a broad picture of the living situation of this population of older people in Mosgiel. The survey data provides a breakdown of those who live alone, those living with a spouse, those living with a son or daughter (with or without any children of theirs), and those who live with other relatives. Table 1 represents the two time periods, showing an increase in the numbers of people living alone.

Table 1 Living Situation of MLSA Population (%)

Accommodation type         Baseline   Six-year
                                      follow-up

Alone                        44.8       54.3
With spouse                  40.2       23.2
With spouse and children      1.4        1.7
With son/daughter             4.4        6.9
With s/d & grandchildren      0.4        1.4
With other relative           1.3        0.7
With friend                   0.6        0.3
Other                         6.9       11.4

The survey interviews at baseline and six-year follow up also included a basic descriptive question on accommodation. Table 2 shows the results of this question for both time periods.

Table 2 Accommodation Type of MLSA Population (%)

Accommodation type        Baseline   Six-year
                                     follow-up

Self-contained house        58.8       49.2
Elderly citizen's unit       5.6        4.0
Other flat/house            26.0       30.6
Flat attached to family      2.3        1.3
Residential home             7.2        7.3
Long-term hospital           0.1        7.3
Other                        0.0        0.3

Note: n= 761 at baseline, and n=313 at the six-year follow-up.

The most notable features of this comparison are the stability of the proportion of this population living in rest homes, and the fact that at the six-year follow-up point the hospital residency rate equals the rest home rate. The first four categories represent styles of independent living. Cumulatively, they correspond to 92.7% of the study participants at the baseline, and 85% at the six-year follow-up. This population may be fairly described as community based, and we may suppose that the changes revealed in living situation and accommodation types reflect other changes within the Mosgiel community, and its ageing population.

Co-residence in the Mosgiel situation is seen, not as a situation in which the older person becomes dependent on the household of another family member, but as the reverse (Keeling 1998a: 215). Most overseas literature on co-residence describes the older family member as joining the household of younger family members, and as entering a situation of dependency (Lee and Dwyer 1996, Roan and Raley 1996). Speare and Avery (1993) offer an alternative view with evidence that in many joint households, the primary benefit is to the adult child. The three research participants in this situation spoke of themselves as the primary householder/homeowner, with their daughters coming to live with their mother, rather than vice versa.

Apart from Mrs Burgess, whose grandson is a long-term co-resident, only one other respondent had experience of living with a relative other than a son or daughter, and that was Mrs Thom, although she was living on her own at the time of the interviews. She had been widowed for several years, and she and her widowed sister had shared their Mosgiel unit for several of those years. Her description of how this joint arrangement had evolved (see Keeling 1998a: 217) illustrates one of the ways the women interviewed had kept their families at a distance, while developing a style of co-residence which they saw as mutually supportive.

A significant part of the Mosgiel study involves describing and mapping social and supportive networks, and exploring the many ways in which the older people manage and negotiate relationships with family and friends (Keeling 1998a: 171). In a recent paper arising out of this work (Keeling et al. 1999) it is suggested that people whose geographically closest family member is not an adult son or daughter are more likely to be admitted to a rest home. This suggests that, while it may appear that these older people are "ageing in place", other family members are more mobile. As the younger generations move to other places seeking employment, the family and social support structures on which older people depend are depleted. (This is also reported in Joseph and Chalmers (1995).)

DECISION-MAKING: WHERE TO LIVE?

Joseph and Chalmers interviewed older people in Tirau and Morrinsville about decisions regarding "staying on" or leaving a community (1995:79). There were numerous occasions in the Mosgiel interviews where people talked about making major life decisions and, in review, it became clear that decisions concerning where and how they should live were particularly significant. These decisions showed how these participants felt about Mosgiel, their house and home, and detailed the evaluations and methods of making choices they used in the process. For the purpose of this paper, I will analyse how participants made decisions about their living arrangements. I will outline the factors that seemed important for deciding to continue living alone, to consider other living arrangements, and to stay in Mosgiel.

Several participants mentioned that the size, scale and manageability of the house and garden were major considerations in this decision-making process. Mrs Lachlan explained how she manages to stay on in her original family home:

   "Reg built this house for me. They say, oh, go, it's too big for you. But a
   man cuts my hedges, and I've got a man that weeds the garden, and I pay the
   boys (grandsons) to cut the grass. It's not a big house. Lounge, separate
   dining room, two bedrooms, and this [a sunny day room where the interview
   was conducted] ... I put the older boy in here on his own, and I've got my
   double bed, and the two younger ones in the front room. Not a big place,
   quarter-acre section, but that's nothing. No vegetable garden."

Embedded in the interviews is the connection between house and garden, and this becomes particularly evident when decision,; about moving are linked with maintenance issues and gardening. Two contrasting examples show that this linkage is not uni-dimensional: each chooses to maintain independence in a different way. One remains "in place" and the other moves house.

Mrs Lachlan decided to stay in the house despite its size and practical maintenance requirements, because of a sense of family connectedness, both past and present. In contrast, Mrs Simpson decided to move. She linked her late husband's declining health, in his last months following a gardening injury, to her subsequent decision to move into a flat with a much smaller garden.

Many others echoed the logic behind this connection: size and scale of garden and section maintenance was one area where they could relinquish control without this fully jeopardising their ability or wish to stay "at home". Moving to a smaller property, with minimal garden responsibilities was a common theme expressed in a way that confirms the wish to maintain independence albeit in a more limited environment.

In the interview with Mr Clark, a widower living in his home of over 30 years and spending most of his time in his extensive garden, there was a constant theme in his justification for staying on there. As he said, "I've got to do something, to keep it tidy." At the same time, his severely limited sight was causing him to wonder how long this could continue. While his wife was alive, "... we were determined to stay -- this was our house ... every stick is ours". In his interview, he revealed to me a question he had not yet raised with his son:

   "I'm seriously thinking ... because of my age, of ... just nosying around
   and seeing ... where else I could live. In some sort of a home, or a small
   flat or something like that. I haven't started work on that project at all,
   but it's in my mind. Because I feel it's getting a wee bit too much for me
   now. I'll be 89 in May ... I can do it, physically, I'm pretty fit. I walk
   a mile every day. Ah, but this blindness."

MEANINGS OF HOME

Participants talk about house and home in a variety of literal and figurative ways, suggesting that spatial connections are particularly intense for older people, in light of their long duration. As several writers suggest, it is through house and home that people are connected to their place (Bowlby et al. 1997, Carsten and Hugh-Jones 1995, Davison et al 1993, Gurney 1997, Gurney and Means 1993).

Home has a meaning that can be partly expressed by the concept of "ownership", which has an economic/legal meaning as well as a symbolic one in the sense of belonging. This area of ownership and its public policy implications have been explored in Keeling (1998), and also in Dupuis and Thorns (1996). This work presents some of the ways in which older people in Mosgiel and elsewhere reveal ideas of personal and financial investment in a particular unit of housing. A sense of belonging, in which the house belongs to the person, and the person belongs to the community in which the house is located, is thus connected with any discussion of personal independence in a community setting.

Mrs Fletcher contrasted being at home with being on holiday:

   "I am always glad to get home ... I miss little things like being able to
   wash out something when you want to ... I think it's just because you're
   not in charge, really. You have to consider somebody else."

The domestic illustration of her ease in doing her small washing shows that day-to-day independence adds up to a more fundamental sense of independence, of being in charge.

In past times, a public announcement that one was "at home" was an invitation to others to visit. Thus, it is from home, from one's own space, that hospitality is frequently extended and accepted. Visiting another's home entails crossing the important boundaries of privacy and familiarity. Hospitality is intrinsically a social interaction, entailing reciprocity in relationships and sharing food and other resources in the home setting (Keeling 1998a: 214, 240).

The ability to share one's home with others is reflected in a variety of ways. Mrs Hill is a keen bridge player, and she reports that her four mostly play in each other's homes. Mrs Wilson made a contrast between socialising, having people visit in each other's homes, and her current lack of involvement in outside groups:

   "No, I don't belong to any groups. Well, we had the business, and we were
   really too busy to, at that time, and then after we sold out, well, I was
   really ... felt that I was just too old to come into clubs, and sort of
   things. I was quite content to be in my own home."

There were two women in particular, whose ideas about home were a strong underlying thread throughout their interviews: Mrs Lewis and Mrs Burgess. I will show how each told her life story and described changes in her family and personal situation, exploring what "home" has meant to her.

Mrs Burgess: At Home

Many years ago, while she still had responsibility for a growing family, Mrs Burgess came to a State housing unit in Mosgiel after an abrupt separation from her husband. Twenty-five years later, at the time of the interview, she was still living in that same house and had a teenage grandson living with her for much of the time. She referred to the value of his sharing the house with her in terms of the company he gave her, while at the same time, recognising his needs as different from hers.

   "Well, he's got to have company. I'm not so bad, because I've got my home,
   and my section, I've got something to occupy my mind, but he's still young
   and going to school. He's got to have ones of his own company ... I've had
   my day ... I'm old now, but he's young ... You can't tie him down to my
   style of life, because I'm quite happy to be at home, and moving around at
   home, well you can't expect him to do that."

So despite the fact that he lives with her now for much of the time, and has done for many years, she sees them as having different "homes":

   "When he goes home, and holiday time, he moves out. ... I've never stopped
   him from that. His home is with his mother. You can't blame him in a way,
   but oh, I miss him."

Mrs Lewis: At Home

Mrs Lewis told how, some years ago, she had had two significant changes to her "home base" and family allegiance. Once was in her childhood, as she had been fostered into different branches of her family, and had initially been separated from, and then reunited with, her brother. Later, as a young woman, she had taken up a "home help" position in a rural situation, looking after the grandparents of the man she later married. She described how she had been effectively adopted by her future "in-laws", and how her marriage and setting up process with her husband had been managed by her parents-in-law. This however did not diminish her sense of homecoming on either occasion.

   "[As a child] I'd found myself a new home all of a sudden, and I enjoyed
   living there. I could have stayed there forever I suppose, only the time
   came later, when I was able to, you know, set out for myself, and go to
   work. [As a young woman] I got ... quite used to these elderly people, and
   I stayed there for a few years. I never went back home. ... I liked being
   independent, and ... at the time my intended mother-in-law had these fixed
   ideas about getting me settled down ... `We've made plans for him to get
   married, and ... you've been engaged now for two years, and you've got to
   think about it, sooner or later.' I said, `Well, where are we going to
   live?'... So anyway, Father went out and looked about -- I was calling him
   Father, by that time, practically ... He found a place for us to live. And
   settled Frank on it, and took me to see it. I never seen it until after
   they'd bought it. I had a look, and they said, there's your first home. And
   it was my very first home, that I ever had of my own, you know. And I was
   really thrilled with it."

Mrs Lewis presents two instances of a very strong influence by others, firstly in the fostering situation, and later in the process of a quasi-arranged marriage. In both contexts, she personally reacted to these living situations as "home" and transferred her sense of independence to her newly acquired home.

MOSGIEL: A SENSE OF PLACE

The interviews include several references to Mosgiel itself as "home", and to ideas on belonging to this particular geographic community, with its shared history and relations to the wider region.

Feld and Basso (1996) have brought together a recent collection of anthropological and cultural geographic writing on the subject of "place". At its conclusion, Geertz summarises the extent to which place as a dimension of human existence "goes without saying", with a sense of place presented as having strong currency still in the modern world, and in complex communities. These collected writings show "the inseparability of the lives the various peoples live and the settings in which they live them -- what Basso calls their `interanimation'" (1996:260). This work gives life to the truism that no one lives in the world in general, but in "the world around here", drawing particularly on the contention that "place is the most fundamental form of embodied experience -- the site of a powerful fusion of sell space and time" (Feld and Basso 1996:9). This study adds a strong element also of social space, a place shared with other people, particularly with family and friends.

In describing the community of Mosgiel and the kind of home in which older people there typically live, the intention is to convey something of what it is like for older people to live in Mosgiel. To the extent that New Zealand has adopted the slogan of "ageing in place" as a policy fundamental, there is a risk of neutralising and making static and passive something that is complex, highly personal and dynamic. Conversely, it is important to acknowledge that the national context of policy and practice relating to older people applies as much to Mosgiel as to any other local New Zealand community.

The interview material produced through the study included references to buildings, parks, and streets and how these had changed and developed at particular times. There were stories of the changing fortunes of local businesses, sometimes from the inside perspective of owner-operators or employees, and sometimes as consumers and customers. Many people talked about community groups and local organisations, schools their children had attended, and places they had frequented. In their stories, they personalised houses by referring to people in their place, and they dated periods in their lives in relation to visible developments in and around the town.

In the interview transcripts, many references to a sense of place were noted, offering historical and contemporary perceptions of Mosgiel as a place, and of its environs. This sense of place frequently appeared through an involvement with a particular community institution, through a specific connection with a commercial or economic enterprise, and through descriptions of how things used to be around here.

There was constant interconnection between people, places and times: "this house was bought from Mrs Young"; "we used to get our firewood and coal from ..."; "I met her one day in the bakery"; "oh, that was before they moved the railway station"; "my brother would borrow a truck and we'd go to Brighton for the day."

One factor that has not changed significantly in their lifetimes is the climate. Some of the people interviewed referred to the local climate in the context of their own health keeping. In general, they see themselves as "used to" the climate, and that is taken to mean that it has little noticeable effect on their lifestyle. Others described some of their strategies for coping with climatic conditions, and changing lifestyle in terms of their habits for keeping warm, and choices of clothing. One woman (Mrs Rongen) implied that she felt the cold wind more now than in her earlier years, and that sometimes she chose not to go out if it was too cold. Mrs Fletcher based her rejection of an offer to live closer to her family in Sydney on her inability to adjust now to the climate there: "the heat, it would kill me".

The interview transcripts and the fieldwork notes made during the Mosgiel study reveal that the town has a complex identity in people's minds. Its identifiability becomes evident in the ways people talk about their own past times spent there, and about time spent away from Mosgiel. People represented their views of Mosgiel as a community -- why they chose to live here, or stay, or return.

Mosgiel was frequently spoken of as "A great place to grow older in", and as an ideal place for older people to live. While many features are noted in these comments (climate, flatness, size, location, and proximity to either town or country), they coalesced around a notion that related this place to ageing.

Specific mention was made of Mosgiel's "middle town" image. It would be described as "not too rich, not too poor", or "just the right size". It is seen as near enough to the services of a larger centre in Dunedin, but not too near. Older people could be close enough to family members, but not too close. In occupying a kind of staging place between country and city, its location on a rural-urban continuum was also implied (cf. Frankenberg 1965). So country people could come closer to town, or town people head for the country in later life, without going "too far" in or out, as the case may be. While these may well be idealised notions of town and country, interestingly, reference to Mosgiel as a "suburb" of Dunedin was very rare. It is clearly a place in its own right, not a place with an identity derived from its larger neighbour.

It is appropriate to classify those who participated in the interviews as "locals", since their range of movement or shifting residence rarely extended beyond Otago. Two respondents had been born in the UK (one in England, one in Scotland) but each had migrated to the region with her husband and family around 1950, and considered New Zealand and Mosgiel very much as home. Of the others, all were born in the South Island, and it appears to be in the generation of their children that long-term residential movement to the north had begun. For many, the period of the Second World War had expanded their geographical horizons.

It is acknowledged that the project to which this study was attached may have exaggerated the "localness" of its participants, by focussing on those who were already over 70 in Mosgiel at the start of the project and who were still resident in that community six years later. However, there has been external confirmation that others also see Mosgiel as a good place in which to grow older, in that major developments relevant to older people in this community were initiated after the MLSA was already underway. By the mid-1990s, two retirement villages had been developed within Mosgiel, each offering a range of accommodation styles to older people, within the context of a community created to offer a wide range of services.

These villages include owner-occupied units, stand-alone cottages, serviced apartments, full rest home care, as well as communal dining and recreational facilities, and social and physical activity programmes. These privately owned and managed enterprises have publicised Mosgiel as a focal centre for services directed towards older people, and have attracted further movement into the town from its traditional rural hinterland, as well as from further afield throughout New Zealand.

Such commercial developments reinforced Mosgiel's image as a retirement centre for Otago. In a parallel evolution, the facility which in the mid-1980s had been a small public "cottage hospital" for Mosgiel, by the mid-1990s had become a privately operated, geriatric care, long-stay hospital. Thus, by the mid-1990s, selecting Mosgiel as the location for a unique long-term study of ageing in New Zealand some ten years earlier proved to be most appropriate. With regard to the social context of ageing, the town changed during that ten-year period in the direction of staying much the same, only more so. Through a convoluted process of reinventing itself, "Mosgiel: a great place to grow older" had become a self-fulfilling prophecy. In contrast, for older people in Tirau, the reduction of rural services led to limited housing options and an increased need for residential care (Joseph and Chalmers 1995).

While Mosgiel was the immediate focus, both in the study range and in the minds of those participating in the study, the next ring of geographic focus for most people is clearly Dunedin and, beyond that, Otago. Transport developments, and changing labour market patterns have contributed to the growth of the satellite relationship between Mosgiel and Dunedin. This began during the working lives of people who are now in their eighties. Many of those interviewed had also spent some years living and working in Dunedin. One in particular, who described herself as a "townie", described her own childhood in a three-generational family unit right in the present commercial centre of Dunedin.

Others talked of different suburban areas within Dunedin, where they had lived, run shops, gone to school as children, followed public transport routes to visit their parents, and joined local women's groups. With all of these geographic connections came a sense of historical and spatial groundedness, even in relation to quite a widespread urban community.

IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND PRACTICE

In a variety of ways, those interviewed talked about the many connections between their own home and the wider community. These are the places where public and private worlds meet. Their homes reflect their identity and life history, and home is the place where family interactions focus, and where the lives of friends and family members -- past and present -- intersect. It is through their home that they are located in the wider community, amongst neighbours and friends, and with ready access to the commercial and social services which support their lives.

In examining the experience of "ageing in place" in Mosgiel, it is clear that a great deal depends on the place itself. In the same way. we find these older people proclaiming and practising their independence in the context of social networks including family and friends. Thus it could be argued that at a policy level, our attention might be more fruitfully directed at exploring the management of interdependence, and identifying those characteristics of particular places and community settings which promote a sense of belonging, security and identity in later life.

Three implications, in particular, arise from the Mosgiel material concerning policy and practical aspects of "ageing in place". The first is that, while the older generation may well choose to remain in Mosgiel, other branches of their families appear to be leaving the region in pursuit of employment opportunities. This shows up a possible contradiction at a policy level between labour-market mobility and flexibility for younger generations, and "ageing in place" being positively supported for the older generation.

The second is that even within a town seen as a "great place to grow Older", some older people choose to move to rest home and retirement village settings, or may need long term hospital care. Such decisions can be seen as reflecting independence from family support, or as the preferred means of staying in the district. Interpretations such as these cast a different light on the choices older people make about long term care, even in the awareness of the public and private costs entailed in rest home and hospital care, and the expressed preference for "ageing in place" (see Keeling 1998, National Health Committee 1999).

Thirdly, the growing practice and provision of home-based services may need to take into account invisible privacy and intimacy barriers, involving people other than family members in ways which older people can see as invasive and threatening to their sense of independence. When arrangements are made for "home" to become the site in which "care" or "surveillance" is provided, it is important to recognise that much can be learned from overseas research such as Gubrium and Sankar (1990) and Twigg (1997): being house-bound, or heavily dependent on strangers who work in one's home, connotes a less positive experience than "ageing in place".

Through an exploration of the three-dimensionality of independence for older people in a community setting, the complexity of each of these three dimensions and the interplay among them is stressed. Policy efforts to simplify the notion of independence are mirrored in a desire for clarity, choices and control on the part of older people themselves.

It is clear that the way the older people interviewed talk about where and how they live tells us a great deal about independence. In considering independence broadly as a three dimensional construct, we see for example how promoting independence in one dimension, through a static and dogmatic emphasis on "ageing in place", may conflict with promoting social or personal independence. Making independent decisions to negotiate appropriate change and adaptation to changing needs may well add up to being able to stay in Mosgiel, but having to leave Tirau. Ethnographic research offers the capacity to understand complexity as well as context. I perceive such understanding as crucial for meaningful and viable policy.

(1) Address for correspondence: Dr Sally Keeling, Department of Medicine, Christchurch School of Medicine, The Princess Margaret Hospital, P.O. Box 731, Christchurch.

(2) Thanks are due to The Health Research Council of New Zealand, for the award to the author of a Postgraduate Scholarship in 1996-7, and for support of the Mosgiel Longitudinal Study of Ageing. In addition, financial support for MLSA is acknowledged from Lottery Aged, Sandoz Gerontology, and the Returned Servicemen's Association.

(3) Three features identified in this extract concern relationships with family members, friends, and neighbours, indicated in references to aloneness, social support and friendship with peers and others. A full discussion of the ways these relationships are involved in negotiations of support, and in the maintenance of independence is available in Keeling (1998a: 203).

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Sally Keeling Department of Medicine Christchurch School of Medicine University of Otago(1)