A test of the theory of informed consumer choice in vocational rehabilitation.If people with disabilities are to experience personal satisfaction and quality of life (QOL QOL, n quality of life, a subjective assessment of one's emotional and physical well-being. ), they must play a vital role in directing the disability policy and rehabilitation rehabilitation: see physical therapy. service delivery that are central to their empowerment. To empower empower verb To encourage or provide a person with the means or information to become involved in solving his/her own problems a person is to provide him or her opportunity to make choices and decisions regarding his or her life. Choice and control are highly valued prerogatives that reflect the autonomy, identity, and independence of an individual (Condeluci, 1987; Kosciulek, 1999a). The right to make choices, express preferences, and exercise control over life issues are critical ingredients for empowering and enhancing the QOL of persons with disabilities (Kiernan & Hagner, 1995). Unfortunately, people with disabilities too often are denied the opportunity to exercise control over the most basic aspects of daily life. The opportunity to make choices concerning living arrangements, work, and recreation has been limited or is nonexistent non·ex·is·tence n. 1. The condition of not existing. 2. Something that does not exist. non for many individuals who have disabilities. For example, some individuals may never have been provided with more than one choice, adequate information about alternatives may never have been made available, decisions may have been made by professionals who feel they know best, or capabilities and self-assertions may have been ignored or underestimated (Bannerman, Sheldon, Sherman, & Harchik, 1990; Parent, 1993). Choices made by persons with disabilities are often based on the avoidance of undesirable alternatives, or upon the acceptance of the available, rather than on true preferences. External forces such as agency regulations, lack of accessibility, inadequate supports, or stereotypical attitudes (Hagner & Marrone, 1995) have frequently restricted decisions. In addition, while sometimes individuals with disabilities are involved in disability policy development and rehabilitation service delivery in a minor or token fashion (e.g., membership on an advisory council), these processes continue to occur, to a large extent, without the participation and involvement of people with disabilities (National Council on Disability [NCD NCD - Network Computing Devices ], 1996). Parent (1993) concluded unequivocally that "it has become increasingly evident that the powerlessness pow·er·less adj. 1. Lacking strength or power; helpless and totally ineffectual. 2. Lacking legal or other authority. pow and lack of self-direction often felt by people with disabilities are more frequently related to the attitudes and practices of caregivers, service providers, funding agencies, social institutions, and society in general, rather than to any limitations or impairments resulting from the disability itself" (p. 21). Informed Consumer Choice in Vocational Rehabilitation Noun 1. vocational rehabilitation - providing training in a specific trade with the aim of gaining employment rehabilitation - the restoration of someone to a useful place in society Given that employment is a key to independence and improved QOL for people with disabilities (Federal Register, 2002), choice in the selection of employment goals and rehabilitation services necessary to meet those goals is a critical element for empowering persons with disabilities (Kosciulek, 1999b). Informed choice is a process during which a person sets goals, gathers information, considers a range of options, and then takes responsibility for selecting the option that best meets his or her criteria. Informed choice refers to a person's ability to understand and use programs successfully, because the programs and services are designed to enable consumers to navigate them competently and without fear of reprisal reprisal, in international law, the forcible taking, in time of peace, by one country of the property or territory belonging to another country or to the citizens of the other country, to be held as a pledge or as redress in order to satisfy a claim. . More specifically, and in direct relation to vocational rehabilitation (VR), informed choice is the process by which individuals participating in VR programs make meaningful decisions about their vocational goals, the services and service providers needed to reach those goals, and how those services will be procured (Rehabilitation Services Administration [RSA (1) (Rural Service Area) See MSA. (2) (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) A highly secure cryptography method by RSA Security, Inc., Bedford, MA (www.rsa.com), a division of EMC Corporation since 2006. It uses a two-part key. ], 2001). It is presumed that an individual's skills and abilities to exercise informed choice can be developed through use of self-assessment techniques, training and experience in goal setting and decision-making, and consumer education. In this manner, skills in exercising informed choice could grow in a parallel fashion along with growth of specific vocational and employment skills, enabling the individual to continue making important life decisions following the completion of VR services. The concept of informed consumer choice currently is infused within rehabilitation philosophy and mandated as part of the VR service process. Consumer choice policies and practices have begun to be embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. within services provided by state VR agencies and community rehabilitation programs Noun 1. rehabilitation program - a program for restoring someone to good health program, programme - a system of projects or services intended to meet a public need; "he proposed an elaborate program of public works"; "working mothers rely on the day care (CRPs). In addition, the Choice Demonstration Projects yielded models useful for the initial development of practices promising for enhancing choice in the VR process (InfoUse, 1999b). Despite these policies and projects, however, little is known about the actual process and outcomes of consumer choice in VR processes. In particular, limited information is available regarding the process, extent, and impact of consumer choice on employment outcomes for individuals with disabilities as a result of services provided by the approximately 8,000 CRPs in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Of import is the statement in the Choice Demonstration Project's evaluation summary report (InfoUse, 1999a) that "Additional research is needed to determine the impact of informed choice on employment outcomes. In future demonstrations, the relationship between vocational rehabilitation process objectives and short and long-term employment outcomes should be clarified" (p. viii). The Need for Theory in Vocational Rehabilitation In a socio-behavioral discipline such as VR, it is necessary to have models to organize and evaluate research and practice and to stimulate new ideas "New Ideas" is the debut single by Scottish New Wave/Indie Rock act The Dykeenies. It was first released as a Double A-side with "Will It Happen Tonight?" on July 17, 2006. The band also recorded a video for the track. and concepts. If the VR field is to progress in addressing important matters such as the status of people with disabilities in our society who wish to be independent, productive, and engaged in their communities (NCD, 2003; Stapleton & Burkhauser, 2003), valid models are needed to guide the development, implementation, and evaluation of disability policy and rehabilitation services. Thus, the need for and importance of theoretical models in rehabilitation is repeatedly emphasized in the literature (e.g., Hershenson, 1996; Kosciulek, 1999a; Livneh, 2001; Parker, Schaller, & Hansmann, 2003; Tate & Pledger PLEDGER. The same as pawner. (q.v.) , 2003). Unfortunately, the disability policy and rehabilitation literature, except for the Choice Demonstration Project reports developed by InfoUse (1999a, 1999b), has provided little information regarding models or constructs that might be useful in conceptualizing specific ways to examine and enhance informed consumer choice. One model that is potentially useful in the rehabilitation field is the Theory of Informed Consumer Choice in Vocational Rehabilitation ([ICC-VR Model], Kosciulek, 2004). The major tenet TENET. Which he holds. There are two ways of stating the tenure in an action of waste. The averment is either in the tenet and the tenuit; it has a reference to the time of the waste done, and not to the time of bringing the action. 2. of the ICC-VR Model is that increased informed consumer choice in the VR process will lead to enhanced employment outcomes. The ICC-VR Model was developed to provide a theoretical framework for the examination of informed consumer choice in VR. Further, the model provides a structure for the evaluation of informed choice policy (i.e., the 1992 and 1998 Rehabilitation Act Amendments informed choice mandates) and rehabilitation service delivery (i.e., services provided by state VR agencies and CRPs), and the relation of consumer choice to organizational performance Organizational performance comprises the actual output or results of an organization as measured against its intended outputs (or goals and objectives). Specialists in many fields are concerned with organizational performance including strategic planners, operations, , consumer satisfaction, and employment outcomes. The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesized structural model of the ICC-VR Model (see Figure 1). The following hypotheses were tested: 1. There will be a direct relation from organizational performance to informed consumer choice, with higher levels of organizational performance relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc higher levels of informed consumer choice. 2. There will be a direct relation from organizational performance to consumer satisfaction, with higher levels of organizational performance relating to higher levels of consumer satisfaction. 3. There will be a direct relation from organizational performance to employment outcomes, with higher levels of organizational performance relating to higher levels of employment outcomes 4. There will be a direct relation from informed consumer choice to consumer satisfaction, with higher levels of informed consumer choice relating to higher levels of consumer satisfaction. 5. There will be a direct relation from informed consumer choice to employment outcomes, with higher levels of informed consumer choice relating to higher levels of employment outcomes. 6. There will be a direct relation from consumer satisfaction to employment outcomes, with higher levels of consumer satisfaction relating to higher levels of employment outcomes. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Method Participants and Procedure In an effort to maximize diversity and representativeness of study participants, sampling criteria and recruitment strategies occurred at three levels in this study. The first step in sampling involved a purposeful pur·pose·ful adj. 1. Having a purpose; intentional: a purposeful musician. 2. Having or manifesting purpose; determined: entered the room with a purposeful look. sampling procedure to identify CRPs interested in participating in the study. CRP C-reactive protein (CRP) A protein present in blood serum in various abnormal states, like inflammation. Mentioned in: Pelvic Inflammatory Disease CRP, n.pr See C-reactive protein. sampling encompassed a process of recruiting and identifying CRPs representing the diversity of the CRP industry in a Midwest state. A total of 8 CRPs of approximately 60 in the state were contacted and recruited to participate in the study. Community rehabilitation programs were identified that represented the state CRP industry in terms of size, geographic location, comprehensiveness of service provision, and diversity of clientele served. Primary contact persons from each CRP provided the researchers with CRP-related demographic information. Regarding the descriptive profile of the eight participating CRPs, the mean age of consumers served by the 8 participating CRPs was reported to be 35 years (SD = 9.56) with a range from 15-78. The average consumer gender distribution for consumers served by the participating CRPs was reported to be 45% Female and 55% Male. Regarding consumer primary disability type, 53% of the consumers at the eight agencies had mental retardation mental retardation, below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. , 14% a psychiatric psy·chi·at·ric adj. Of or relating to psychiatry. psychiatric adjective Pertaining to psychiatry, mental disorders disability, and 11% a learning disability. Eight-four percent of the consumers were White and 12% were African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. , with less than one percent of other races represented. The mean number of consumers served daily by all 8 CRPs during the most recent fiscal or calendar year was 152 (SD = 33.48) with a range from 107-180, while the mean number of total consumers served by all 8 CRPs during the most recent fiscal or calendar year was 430 (SD = 99.0) with a range from 118-800. The mean number of full-time staff persons employed at the participating CRPs was 75 (SD = 29.92) with a range from 48-143 and mean number of part-time staff persons employed at the participating CRPs was 21 (SD = 8.79) with a range from 0-62. The second phase of sampling in this study consisted of obtaining a volunteer, convenience sample of CRP staff for completing the Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaire. This procedure yielded data related to the construct and variable of Organizational Performance. A CRP primary contact person provided the researchers with the number of staff who had direct or indirect involvement with consumers who received VR services wherein where·in adv. In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned? conj. 1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live. 2. informed consumer choice processes and outcomes were operative. The sampling criteria in this phase of sampling thus included individuals who were employed as a staff person at one of the eight participating CRPs at the time of the study. Sets of questionnaires were mailed to each CRP contact person and then distributed to staff along with a letter detailing the purpose of the study and anonymity, confidentiality, and informed consent issues. A postage-paid, return envelope also was included for direct return mailing to the researchers. CRP staff that agreed to be in the study completed anonymously the Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaire in paper and pencil, self-report format. A total of 290 Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaires were distributed across the 8 participating CRPs. Of these 290 questionnaires, 129 completed questionnaires were returned to the investigator, representing a 44% response rate from CRP staff. The Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaire contained a brief demographic survey designed to obtain a descriptive profile of the participating CRP staff members. Participating CRP staff member ages ranged from 24 to 65 years (M = 42.15, SD = 10.12). The numbers of years CRP staff were employed by their respective agencies ranged from 0.5 to 28 years (M = 6.74, SD = 5.92). Additional demographic characteristics of CRP staff that completed the Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaire are presented in detail in Table 1. The sampling criteria in the third phase of sampling in this study involved obtaining a volunteer sample of consumers with disabilities who had received VR services from a participating CRP and achieved an employment outcome. In this sampling phase, the primary CRP contact person assisted the researchers with identifying individual consumers who would fit the sample criteria. Sampling methods in this phase consisted of recruiting individuals who had been consumers of CRP VR services via word of mouth, telephone, email, and written announcements. This sampling procedure yielded a total of 112 consumers who had received VR services from the CRPs who participated in the study. Following the identification of potential study participants for the third phase of data collection (i.e., from consumers who had received VR services from CRPs); sessions were scheduled to conduct individual interviews with consumers. The individual interview sessions were conducted onsite at CRPs, at the consumer's place of employment, or at a neutral site (e.g., restaurant). Individual interview sessions ranged from approximately 30 minutes in length to 90 minutes in length. The purpose and procedure of the study were presented verbally to each individual consumer by the researchers. Consumers also were provided a written description detailing the purpose of the study, anonymity and confidentiality, and informed consent. Participants who agreed to be in the study then participated in the individual interview session during which the following data were collected: consumer demographic information (e.g., age, gender), descriptive job-related data (e.g., job title, wages), and data related to informed consumer choice (Consumer Choice Questionnaire), consumer satisfaction (EOI EOI Expression Of Interest EOI End of Image EOI Evidence of Insurability EOI End of Interrupt EOI Escuela de Organización Industrial (Spain) EOI Economic Opportunity Institute EOI End of Input EOI End Or Identify satisfaction scales), and employment outcomes (EOI outcome scales). Appropriate and necessary accommodations were used as necessary to facilitate the effective conduct of individual interviews with consumers (e.g., interpreter A high-level programming language translator that translates and runs the program at the same time. It translates one program statement into machine language, executes it, and then proceeds to the next statement. with individuals with hearing impairments hearing impairment n. A reduction or defect in the ability to perceive sound. , materials in large print or Braille format for individuals with visual impairments Visual Impairment Definition Total blindness is the inability to tell light from dark, or the total inability to see. Visual impairment or low vision is a severe reduction in vision that cannot be corrected with standard glasses or contact lenses and , one-on-one individual interview with individuals with mental retardation). Participating consumers with disabilities ranged in age from 17 to 59 years (M = 35.34, SD = 12.87). The mean number of years of participant education was 11.92 (SD = 1.67). Of the participants who were consumers with disabilities, the majority were women (59%) who had never been married. Seventy-seven percent of the participants were White and 21% were Black. Participants earned a mean hourly wage of $7.57 (SD = 3.22) with a range from $3.00 per hour to $25.00 per hour. The mean number of reported hours worked per week for participants was 28.82 (SD = 11.44) with a range from 10 hours worked per week to 49 hours worked per week. The number of months participants had been employed ranged from 1 month to 17 months (M = 9.12, SD = 4.54). Additional demographic characteristics of participating consumers with disabilities are presented in detail in Table 2. Variables and Measures Organizational performance. Organizational performance is conceptualized as those components of business, education, and health care organizations that facilitate effective practices and results. The Criteria for Performance Excellence of the Baldrige National Quality Program (National Institute of Standards and Technology National Institute of Standards and Technology, governmental agency within the U.S. Dept. of Commerce with the mission of "working with industry to develop and apply technology, measurements, and standards" in the national interest. [NIST (National Institute of Standards & Technology, Washington, DC, www.nist.gov) The standards-defining agency of the U.S. government, formerly the National Bureau of Standards. It is one of three agencies that fall under the Technology Administration (www.technology. ], 2002) indicate that the key categories of organizational performance include leadership, strategic planning Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. , customer and market focus, information and analysis, human resource focus, process management, and business results. These Baldrige criteria have been used by thousands of organizations to stay abreast of ever-increasing competition and to improve performance. In today's rapid-paced and innovative business environment, the criteria may help VR organizations respond to such evolving world of work changes as privatization privatization: see nationalization. privatization Transfer of government services or assets to the private sector. State-owned assets may be sold to private owners, or statutory restrictions on competition between privately and publicly owned , outsourcing (1) Contracting with outside consultants, software houses or service bureaus to perform systems analysis, programming and datacenter operations. Contrast with insourcing. See netsourcing, ASP, SSP and facilities management. , contingent work Contingent work, also sometimes known as casual work, is a neologism which describes a type of employment relationship between an employer and employee. There is no universally agreed consensus on what type of working arrangement constitutes contingent work contracts, and telework See telecommuting. (Cooper & Burke, 2002). The criteria can be used to assess performance on a wide range of key business indicators including customer, product and service, financial, human resource, and operational. The criteria can help align organizational resources, improve communications, productivity, and effectiveness; and achieve goals. In this study organizational performance was operationally defined by a 45-item Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaire developed based on the Criteria for Performance Excellence of the Baldrige National Quality Program (NIST, 2002). This instrument was designed specifically to measure the level of VR agency organizational performance. The questionnaire consisted of items in each of the following 7 performance categories: leadership, strategic planning, customer and market focus, information and analysis, human resource focus, process management, and business results. Participating agency staff members responded to each item by rating the level of activity of their organization in each performance area on a 10-point scale from 1 = Doing Nothing to 10 = Doing Very Well. An example of an Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaire item is "How well does your agency review individual and program performance relative to established goals and plans?" Participant total mean scores for each category provided the data for measuring organizational performance. Total scale scores can range from 1.00 to 10.00, with higher scores representing higher levels of organizational performance. Using sample data in the present study, the internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. reliability index of the Organizational Self-Assessment Questionnaire was found to be .81. Informed consumer choice. Informed consumer choice is a process during which a person sets goals, gathers information, considers a range of options and then takes responsibility for selecting the option that best meets his or her criteria. Informed choice refers to a person's ability to understand and use programs successfully, because the programs and services are designed to enable consumers to navigate them competently and without fear of reprisal. In the context of VR services, consumer choice is a process by which an individual with a disability makes informed decisions related to the following: (a) the selection of the methods for procuring Procuring, in general, is the act of acquiring goods or services, usually by contract. It may refer to:
Informed consumer choice was operationally defined in this study by the Consumer Choice Questionnaire (CCQ CCQ Commission de la Construction du Québec (French) CCQ Civil Code of Quebec CCQ Critical Care Quarterly CCQ Circulos de Controle de Qualidade CCQ Cross Crew Qualification (Airbus Industrie) ), an instrument developed specifically for the purpose of this investigation. The CCQ items were designed to assess the level of informed consumer choice in the selection of employment goals and rehabilitation services provided by VR organizations. More specifically, the CCQ items related to consumer choice in the following VR areas: referral/intake/assessment, employment/rehabilitation plan development, specific services, specific job goal, and employment outcomes. Participants were asked to rate their level of choice on each of the 26 CCQ items on a 5-point scale from 0 = None to 4 = Very Much. An example of a CCQ item is "How much involvement did you have in choosing your specific job goal?" The internal consistency reliability estimate for the CCQ in this study was .82. Participant total mean scores on the entire instrument provided the data for measuring informed consumer choice. Total scores can range from 0.00 to 4.00, with higher scores representing higher levels of consumer choice. Consumer satisfaction. Consumer satisfaction with VR services is a multidimensional mul·ti·di·men·sion·al adj. Of, relating to, or having several dimensions. mul  ti·di·men construct encompassing the level and quality of
satisfaction with consumer choice and participation in the VR process,
responsiveness and customer service by VR professionals, case management
procedures, specific services, and ultimate employment outcomes
(Kosciulek, 2003). Numerous reports have addressed the significance,
importance, and value of evaluating consumer satisfaction in relation to
the efficacy of VR services, consumer choice and empowerment, and
employment outcomes (e.g., CSAVR CSAVR Council of State Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation , 1998; Koch & Merz, 1995; Richard,
2000). Further, both the Longitudinal Study longitudinal studya chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. of the VR Services Program (Hayward & Schmidt-Davis, 2002) and Choice Demonstration Projects (InfoUse, 1999a) documented the critical role consumer satisfaction data play in state VR agency and CRP program evaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. activities. Building on previous research (e.g., Kosciulek, Vessell, Rosenthal, Accardo, & Merz, 1997), it is hypothesized in the ICC-VR Model that consumer satisfaction is an essential component to consider when assessing organizational performance, consumer choice, and employment outcomes. Consumer satisfaction was operationally defined in this study by the Employment Outcomes Inventory (EOI) (Research & Training Center, University of Wisconsin-Stout University of Wisconsin-Stout is a comprehensive, career-focused polytechnic university where students, faculty and staff use applied learning, scientific theory and research to solve real-world problems, grow the state’s economy and serve society. , 2002) job satisfaction (6 items), VR service satisfaction (9 items), and outcome satisfaction (5 items) scales. The EOI is an instrument that was developed to provide a comprehensive, reliable measure of employment outcomes against standards relevant to employment services typically provided by VR organizations and meaningful for consumers with disabilities, service providers, and funders of services (Thomas, Menz, & Rosenthal, 2001). The three EOI satisfaction scales used as the measure of consumer satisfaction in this study, are scored on a Yes = 1, No = 0, and Not Sure = Missing data scale. Thus, the job satisfaction scale can range from 0-6, the CRP service satisfaction scale from 0-9, and the outcome satisfaction scale from 0-5. The overall scale scores represent a summation summation n. the final argument of an attorney at the close of a trial in which he/she attempts to convince the judge and/or jury of the virtues of the client's case. (See: closing argument) of the scores from the individual questions. Negatively worded items were reversed scored. Higher scores indicate higher levels of consumer satisfaction. Internal consistency reliability estimates of the EOI satisfaction scales were found to be .63 (job satisfaction), .72 (CRP service satisfaction), and .77 (outcome satisfaction). Employment outcomes. Securing and maintaining employment are perhaps the most important and tangible outcomes of successful VR programs. Employment outcomes have often been used as a benchmark of program success for state VR agencies and CRPs. Consumers with disabilities, service providers, and funders of services all have a stake in the nature and quality of VR service outcomes (Thomas et al., 2001). Thus, employment outcomes serve as a primary means of examining the effectiveness of VR services. Given their importance in the VR service process, and as hypothesized in the ICC-VR Model (Kosciulek, 2004), direct and significant relationships exist between organizational performance, informed consumer choice, consumer satisfaction, and employment outcomes. Employment outcomes are conceptualized as those factors beyond simple state-federal VR system status 26 closures that signify sig·ni·fy v. sig·ni·fied, sig·ni·fy·ing, sig·ni·fies v.tr. 1. To denote; mean. 2. To make known, as with a sign or word: signify one's intent. a high quality employment outcome with career growth potential. Such factors include autonomy and challenge, improved self-esteem and personal growth, increased opportunity for socialization socialization /so·cial·iza·tion/ (so?shal-i-za´shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so·cial·i·za·tion n. , and improved quality of life (Gilbride, Thomas, & Stensrud, 1998). Further, benefits, potential for advancement, career development and training, and satisfaction with the job and personal life aspects are critical factors to consider in VR employment outcome data. Employment outcomes were operationally defined in this study by the EOI standard job benefits (9 items), work environment (8 items), life satisfaction (7 items), and economic and social benefits (6 items) scales. The four EOI scales used as the measure of employment outcomes in this study are scored on a Yes = 1, No = 0, and Not Sure = Missing data scale. Thus, the standard job benefits scale can range from 0-9, the work environment scale from 0-8, the life satisfaction scale from 0-7, and the economic and social benefits scale from 0-5. The overall scale scores represent a summation of the scores from the individual questions. Negatively worded items were reversed scored. Higher scores indicate higher levels of employment outcomes. Internal consistency reliability estimates of the EOI employment outcomes scales were found to be .59 (standard job benefits), .81 (work environment), .67 (life satisfaction), and .75 (economic and social benefits). Statistical Analysis As can be seen in the ICC-VR Model in Figure 1, multiple relationships are hypothesized to exist between informed consumer choice and other variables salient in the VR service process. Structural equation modeling Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relationships using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions. (SEM) was used to simultaneously evaluate the relationships between the model constructs of organizational performance, informed consumer choice, consumer satisfaction, and employment outcomes. SEM is a statistical methodology that takes a hypothesis testing hypothesis testing In statistics, a method for testing how accurately a mathematical model based on one set of data predicts the nature of other data sets generated by the same process. (i.e., confirmatory) approach to the multivariate analysis multivariate analysis, n a statistical approach used to evaluate multiple variables. multivariate analysis, n a set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. of a structural theory bearing on some phenomenon (Byrne, 2001). According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Baldwin (1989), SEM is appropriate whenever models of relations among variables need to be estimated and tested. Further, SEM is an especially appropriate method for analyzing nonexperimental data. Finally, given that SEM is a method for testing a specified theory about relations between constructs (Bollen & Long, 1993; Tabachnik & Fidell, 1996), it was identified as the most appropriate statistical technique for testing the hypothesized structure of the ICC-VR Model. The term structural equation modeling conveys two important aspects of the procedure: (a) that the causal processes under study are represented by a series of structural (i.e., regression) equations, and (b) that these structural relations can be modeled pictorially pic·to·ri·al adj. 1. Relating to, characterized by, or composed of pictures. 2. Represented as if in a picture: pictorial prose. 3. to enable a clearer conceptualization con·cep·tu·al·ize v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es v.tr. To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: of the theory under study (Byrne, 2001). The hypothesized model can be tested statistically in a simultaneous analysis of the entire system of variables to determine the extent to which it is consistent with the data. If goodness of fit Goodness of fit means how well a statistical model fits a set of observations. Measures of goodness of fit typically summarize the discrepancy between observed values and the values expected under the model in question. Such measures can be used in statistical hypothesis testing, e. is adequate, the model argues for the plausibility of postulated pos·tu·late tr.v. pos·tu·lat·ed, pos·tu·lat·ing, pos·tu·lates 1. To make claim for; demand. 2. To assume or assert the truth, reality, or necessity of, especially as a basis of an argument. 3. relations among the variables; if it is inadequate, the tenability ten·a·ble adj. 1. Capable of being maintained in argument; rationally defensible: a tenable theory. 2. of such relations is rejected. In addition to adequacy of fit, structural models are supported if relevant structural coefficients between latent variables In statistics, Latent variables (as opposed to observable variables), are variables that are not directly observed but are rather inferred (through a mathematical model) from other variables that are observed and directly measured. are statistically significant and in the predicted direction (Bollen & Long, 1993). With SEM, covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. structure analysis allows for the breakdown of correlations among variables into estimates of the strength of relationships (i.e., parameter estimates) among constructs in a model system. In this manner, SEM attempts to isolate the separate contributions to a criterion (dependent) variable (the effect) made by a set of predictor (independent) variables (the causes). Figure 1 illustrates the hypothesized ICC-VR structural model that was tested in this study. Data were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. through SEM using AMOS Amos (ā`məs), prophetic book of the Bible. The majority of its oracles are chronologically earlier than those of the Bible's other prophetic books. His activity is dated c.760 B.C. 4.0 computer software (Arbuckle, 1999). All SEM analyses were performed on covariance matrices using the maximum likelihood estimation procedure. Results The ICC-VR structural model initially tested did not fit adequately with sample data. Initial results model testing results found the [chi square chi square (kī), n a nonparametric statistic used with discrete data in the form of frequency count (nominal data) or percentages or proportions that can be reduced to frequencies. ] value of the model to be [chi square] = 121.33, p < .001. A non-significant [chi square] value is indicative of a good fitting model (Bollen, 1989; Tabachnik & Fidell, 1996). Thus, the significant [chi square] value suggested the original hypothesized ICC-VR Model did not fit the data. Various fit indices also are used to assess model fit. Bentler (1990), Byrne (2001), and Tabachnik and Fidell (1996) all recommend that the confirmatory fit index (CFI CFI abbr. cost, freight, and insurance ) be used as the primary index of choice when evaluating model fit. These authors reported that unlike the normed fit index (NFI NFI Nasjonal Forskningsinformasjon (Norwegian Research Database) NFI National Fisheries Institute NFI National Fatherhood Initiative NFI National Forest Inventory (Australia) NFI Nutrition Foundation of India ) (Bentler & Bonett, 1980) and goodness of fit index (GFI GFI Ground Fault Interrupter GFI Go For It GFI Government-Furnished Information GFI Growing Families International GFI Goodness of Fit Indices GFI Government Financial Institutions (Philippines) GFI Gross Farm Income ) (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993), which tend to under-estimate model fit with small sample sizes, the CFI is effective at estimating model fit even in small samples. According to Tabachnik and Fidell (1996), high CFI values (i.e., greater than .90) are indicative of a good fitting model. In this study, a CFI of .84 was found when attempting to fit the hypothesized ICC-VR Model to sample data. The significant [chi square] and CFI findings indicated that ICC-VR Model re-specification was necessary. Byrne (2001) stated that one advantage of using SEM is that specified models can be modified according to theory or fit information provided by statistical output to develop models that better fit the data. Based on initial findings, two modifications were made to the original ICC-VR structural model to improve overall model fit. The modifications involved the removed of direct beta paths that were not statistically significant. This consisted of removal of the path from organizational performance to employment outcomes and removal of the path from informed consumer choice to consumer satisfaction. All other path coefficients Path coefficients are linear regression weights expressing the causal linkage between statistical variables in the structural equation modeling approach. External links and references
Figure 2 depicts the final model. The general flow of the model contained the following four primary, functional relationships that were positive and statistically significant: (a) the relation between organizational performance and informed consumer choice, (b) the relation between organizational performance and consumer satisfaction, (c) the relation between informed consumer choice and employment outcomes, and (d) the relation between consumer satisfaction and employment outcomes. The re-specified model had a [chi square] = 101.89, p = .14 and a CFI of .92. The decrease in [chi square] and change from a significant to a non-significant [chi square] suggests the re-specified model better fits the data (Byrne, 2001; Polit, 1996). In addition, the change in the CFI from .84 to .92 indicated a significant improvement in and adequacy of model fit. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Finally, only 18 iterations were needed for a convergent solution. Byrne (2001) reported that a small number of iterations (< 20) indicate that in general a specified model is adequate. Overall, the fit information suggested that the re-specified ICCVR Model was acceptable. All parameter estimates, or path coefficients, in the re-specified model, as predicted, were positive and statistically significant at the p <.05 levels. Thus, relying on statistical and theoretical rationales, the final ICC-VR structural model depicted de·pict tr.v. de·pict·ed, de·pict·ing, de·picts 1. To represent in a picture or sculpture. 2. To represent in words; describe. See Synonyms at represent. in Figure 2, as determined through standard post hoc post hoc adv. & adj. In or of the form of an argument in which one event is asserted to be the cause of a later event simply by virtue of having happened earlier: model-fitting procedures, stands as an adequate representation of the sample data. Discussion The purpose of this investigation was to test the hypothesized structure of the ICC-VR Model (Kosciulek, 2004). SEM results provided support for a revised version Revised Version n. A British and American revision of the King James Version of the Bible, completed in 1885. Revised Version Noun of the model. Specifically, evidence was found to support 4 of the 6 ICC-VR Model hypotheses. Statistically significant path coefficients in the predicted directions were found between organizational performance and informed consumer choice, organizational performance and consumer satisfaction, informed consumer choice and employment outcomes, and consumer satisfaction and employment outcomes. The hypotheses that significant and positive relations existed between organizational performance and employment outcomes and informed consumer choice and consumer satisfaction were not supported by the sample data. The final ICC-VR structural model depicted in Figure 2 meets the criteria for evaluating model fit when using SEM. First, it is consistent with substantive VR theory and research related to informed consumer choice (InfoUse, 1999a; Kosciulek, 1999a; RTI RTI - Return from interrupt , 2002). Second, model adequacy is indicated by pooled statistical criteria (i.e., adequate CFI fit index, non-significant [chi square], and a low number of iterations for model convergence). Finally, the model is parsimonious par·si·mo·ni·ous adj. Excessively sparing or frugal. par si·mo , or simple. In accordance Accordance is Bible Study Software for Macintosh developed by OakTree Software, Inc.[]As well as a standalone program, it is the base software packaged by Zondervan in their Bible Study suites for Macintosh. with model evaluation guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. described by Arbuckle (1999), high ICC-VR Model parsimony par·si·mo·ny n. 1. Unusual or excessive frugality; extreme economy or stinginess. 2. Adoption of the simplest assumption in the formulation of a theory or in the interpretation of data, especially in accordance with the rule of is indicated by the model's relatively small number of parameters. In this study, it was found that higher levels of informed consumer choice were related to higher levels of employment outcomes. This finding thus provides direct empirical evidence related to the impact of informed choice on employment outcomes. A potential implication of this result is that if such findings were replicated in larger and more representative samples of both CRPs and consumers, efforts to increase informed consumer choice in the VR process would appear warranted. A policy implication of this finding, if it is supported by similar findings in a series of additional studies, would be to continue to mandate informed consumer choice in VR legislation. Training implications of a patterned relation between consumer choice and employment outcomes would include the need to systematically include specific choice information and skill training to pre-service and in-service VR professionals. In the current study it also was found that higher levels of consumer satisfaction were related to higher levels of employment outcomes. This finding thus provides evidence to support the hypothesis in the literature (e.g., Capella & Andrew, 2004; Koch & Merz, 1995; Kosciulek, 2003) that consumer satisfaction is an important variable to consider in VR service and outcome processes. Further, the finding of a significant relation between consumer satisfaction and employment outcomes provides support for the effectiveness of the multiple policy and practice efforts during the 1990s to evaluate and increase consumer satisfaction with VR services. Findings in this study also indicated the presence of statistically significant relationships between organizational performance and informed consumer choice and organizational performance and consumer satisfaction. These results suggest that the overall quality of CRPs as human service organizations in areas such as leadership, strategic planning, and customer focus has a direct effect on the level and quality of consumer choice and satisfaction. Theoretically in relation to the ICC-VR Model, these results suggest that rehabilitation agencies should direct resources toward enhancing consumer choice and satisfaction, as these factors will directly and significantly affect employment outcomes. Of note was the finding that a statistically significant relationship between informed consumer choice and consumer satisfaction was not detected in this study. Such a finding appears counter to the conceptual and philosophical nature of the relationship between choice and satisfaction as they relate to the VR process and employment outcomes. While perhaps largely unwritten LAW, UNWRITTEN, or lex non scripta. All the laws which do not come under the definition of written law; it is composed, principally, of the law of nature, the law of nations, the common law, and customs. and unspoken, it is a common belief in VR that consumer choice has a direct and significant relationship to consumer satisfaction (i.e., higher levels and quality of consumer choice lead to higher levels of consumer satisfaction) (Condeluci, 1987; Kiernan & Hagner, 1995; Parent, 1993). One plausible explanation for the lack of a significant relationship between informed consumer choice and consumer satisfaction is the nature of the sample (e.g., sample size, convenience and volunteer sample) and instrumentation used in this study. Results also indicated that there was no statistically significant relationship between organizational performance and employment outcomes. One possible interpretation of this finding, which is supported by the Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence Framework (NIST, 2002), is that the informed consumer choice and consumer satisfaction aspects of the VR process moderate the relation between overall organizational performance and employment outcomes. Further research on the ICC-VR Model is needed to test this hypothesis. However, as in the informed choice and consumer satisfaction case, the sampling and measurement processes used in this study also likely influenced the lack of a statistically significant relationship between organizational performance and employment outcomes. Several caveats regarding the limitations of this study must be noted. First, the number of participating CRPs, agency staff, and consumers was relatively small. Second, the sampling criteria were limited to one Midwestern state in the United States. Third, the representativeness of the participants was limited due to the purposeful and convenience sampling procedures. As a result of the combination of these limitations, the findings in the current study cannot be generalized gen·er·al·ized adj. 1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain. 2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized. 3. to other CRPs or to the larger population of consumers with disabilities who have received VR services. The participating CRPs, staff, and consumers may differ from other groups in different regions of the country due to sample size, geographic, and sample selection limitations. In addition, the descriptive and correlational research design used in this investigation, despite the use of SEM, limits the study to a degree. Causal inferences cannot be made given the nature of the cross-sectional design. In the future, researchers should use other methods of inquiry, including longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. , qualitative, and experimental studies, to evaluate the theoretical and practical value of the ICC-VR Model and add to the data related to the associations between informed consumer choice, organizational performance, consumer satisfaction, and employment outcomes observed in this study. Armed with information about the relations between the constructs in the ICC-VR Model, researchers and practitioners could develop individual, program, and systems-level interventions geared to enhancing employment outcomes through improved organizational performance, increased consumer satisfaction, and informed consumer choice. References Arbuckle, J. L. (1999). AMOS 4.0 User's Guide. Chicago: Smallwaters. Baldwin, B. (1989). A primer prim·er n. A segment of DNA or RNA that is complementary to a given DNA sequence and that is needed to initiate replication by DNA polymerase. in the use and interpretation of structural equation models. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 22, 115-127. Bannerman, D., Sheldon, J., Sherman, J., & Harchik. (1990). Balancing the right to habilitation habilitation, n See rehabilitation. with the right to personal liberties: The rights of people with developmental disabilities developmental disabilities (DD), n.pl the pathologic conditions that have their origin in the embryology and growth and development of an individual. DDs usually appear clinically before 18 years of age. to eat too many doughnuts and take a nap. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) was established in 1968 as a The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis is a peer-reviewed, psychology journal, that publishes research about applications of the experimental analysis of behavior to problems of social importance. , 23, 79-89. Bentler, P. M. (1990). Fit indexes, Lagrange multipliers In mathematical optimization problems, Lagrange multipliers, named after Joseph Louis Lagrange, is a method for finding the extrema of a function of several variables subject to one or more constraints: it is the basic tool in nonlinear constrained optimization. , constraint Constraint A restriction on the natural degrees of freedom of a system. If n and m are the numbers of the natural and actual degrees of freedom, the difference n - m is the number of constraints. changes, and incomplete data in structural models. Multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model. Behavioral Research, 25, 163-172. Bentler, P. M., & Bonnett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588-606. Bollen, K.A. (1989). Structural equation models with latent variables. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Wiley. Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (1993). Testing structural equation models (Eds.). Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks, residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , CA: Sage. Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Capella, M. E., & Andrew, J. D. (2003). The relationship between counselor job satisfaction and consumer satisfaction in vocational rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Counseling rehabilitation counseling, n counseling started in the United States in 1920 to assist individuals disabled by industrial accidents; originally included physical, psychologic, and occupational training; expanded over the next 70 years and laid the Bulletin, 47, 205-214. Condeluci, A. (1987). Social role valorization  To comply with Wikipedia's , the introduction of this article needs a complete rewrite. : A model for
community reentry reentry n. taking back possession and going into real property which one owns, particularly when a tenant has failed to pay rent or has abandoned the property, or possession has been restored to the owner by judgment in an unlawful detainer lawsuit. . Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 2 (1), 49-56.
Cooper, C. L., & Burke, R. J. (2002). The new world of work: Challenges and opportunities. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Council of State Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation. (1998). CSAVR committee on client services consumer satisfaction subcommittee sub·com·mit·tee n. A subordinate committee composed of members appointed from a main committee. subcommittee Noun report. Washington, DC: Author. Federal Register. (2002, May). National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) is a United States governmental institution that provides leadership and support for a comprehensive program of research related to the rehabilitation of individuals with disabilities. request for written comments on NIDRR NIDRR National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (US Department of Education) Long-Range Plan and New Freedom Initiative, 67, 35417-35419. Gilbride, D. D., Thomas, J. R., & Stensrud, R. (1998). Beyond status code 26: Development of an instrument to measure the quality of placements in the state-federal program. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 29, 1, 3-7. Hagner, D., & Marrone, J. (1995). Empowerment issues in services to individuals with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 6 (2), 17-36. Hayward, B. J., & Schmidt-Davis, H. (2002). Longitudinal study of the vocational rehabilitation services program--Fourth final report: Results of the VR program. Research Triangle Park Research Triangle Park, research, business, medical, and educational complex situated in central North Carolina. It has an area of 6,900 acres (2,795 hectares) and is 8 × 2 mi (13 × 3 km) in size. Named for the triangle formed by Duke Univ. , NC: RTI International RTI International was established in 1958 as Research Triangle Institute, the founding tenant of North Carolina’s Research Triangle Park. RTI was founded as part of a larger effort to harness the intellectual capital of the area’s three major universities— North . Hershenson, D. B. (1996). A systems reformulation of a developmental model of work adjustment. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 40, 2-10. InfoUse. (1999a). An evaluation of the Choice Demonstration Projects: Final Report. Berkeley, CA: Author. InfoUse. (1999b). Promising practices in the Choice Demonstration Projects: An operations manual. Berkeley, CA: Author. Joreskog, K. G. & Sorbom, D. (1993). New features in LISREL LISREL Linear Structural Relations 8. Chicago: Scientific Software. Kiernan, W. E., & Hagner, D. (1995). Rehabilitation counseling and the community paradigm. In O. C. Karan & S. Greenspan (Eds.), Community rehabilitation services for people with disabilities (pp. 255-276). Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. Koch, L. C., & Merz, M.A. (1995). Assessing client satisfaction in vocational rehabilitation program Noun 1. vocational rehabilitation program - a program of rehabilitation through job training with an eye to gainful employment rehabilitation program - a program for restoring someone to good health evaluation: A review of instrumentation. Journal of Rehabilitation, 61 (4), 24-30. Kosciulek, J. F. (1999a). The consumer-directed theory of empowerment. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 42 (3), 196-213. Kosciulek, J. F. (1999b). Consumer-direction in disability policy formulation and rehabilitation service delivery. Journal of Rehabilitation, 65 (2), 4-9. Kosciulek, J. F. (2003). A multidimensional approach to the structure of consumer satisfaction with vocational rehabilitation services. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 46 (2), 92-97. Kosciulek, J. F. (2004). Theory of informed consumer choice in vocational rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Education, 18, 3-11. Kosciulek, J. F., Vessell, R., Rosenthal, D. A., Accardo, C. M., & Merz, M.A. (1997). Consumer satisfaction with vocational rehabilitation services. Journal of Rehabilitation, 63 (2), 5-9. Livneh, H. (2001). Psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. adaptation to chronic illness and disability: A conceptual framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see . A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. . Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 44, 151-160. National Council on Disability. (1996). Achieving independence. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 7 (2), 57-65. National Council on Disability. (2003). A progress report (December 2001-December 2002). Washington, DC: Author. National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2002). Baldrige national quality program 2002 criteria for performance excellence. Gaithersburg, MD: Author. Parent, W. (1993). Quality of life and consumer choice. In P. Wehman (Ed.), The ADA Ada, city, United States Ada (ā`ə), city (1990 pop. 15,820), seat of Pontotoc co., S central Okla.; inc. 1904. It is a large cattle market and the center of a rich oil and ranch area. mandate for social change (pp. 1933). Baltimore: Brookes. Parker, R. M., Schaller, J., & Hansmann, S. (2003). Catastrophe, chaos, and complexity models and psychosocial adjustment to disability. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 46, 234-241. Polit, D. F. (1996). Data analysis & statistics for nursing research. Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange. Rehabilitation Services Administration. (2001). Implementation of informed choice. Policy Directive 01-03. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services. Washington, DC: Author. Research and Training Center on Community Rehabilitation Programs. (2002). Employment outcomes inventory (E01). Menomonie, WI: University of Wisconsin-Stout. Research Triangle Institute The Research Triangle Institute (RTI) is a non-profit research organization based in the Research Triangle Park (RTP) of North Carolina. RTI is the oldest tenant of this major research park, and the sister organization to the Research Triangle Foundation. . (2002, January). Longitudinal study of the vocational rehabilitation services program: Briefing for the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative re·ha·bil·i·tate tr.v. re·ha·bil·i·tat·ed, re·ha·bil·i·tat·ing, re·ha·bil·i·tates 1. To restore to good health or useful life, as through therapy and education. 2. Services. Research Triangle, NC: Author. Richard, M. A. (2000). A discrepancy DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a variance. (q.v.) 2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. model for measuring consumer satisfaction with rehabilitation services. Journal of Rehabilitation, 66 (4), 37-43. Stapleton, D. C., & Burkhauser, R. V. (2003). The decline in employment of people with disabilities: A policy puzzle (Eds.). Kalamazoo, MI: Upjohn Institute. Tabachnik, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1996). Using multivariate statistics Multivariate statistics or multivariate statistical analysis in statistics describes a collection of procedures which involve observation and analysis of more than one statistical variable at a time. Sometimes a distinction is made between univariate (e.g. (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins. Tate, D. G., & Pledger, C. (2003). An integrative conceptual framework of disability: New directions for research. American Psychologist The American Psychologist is the official journal of the American Psychological Association. It contains archival documents and articles covering current issues in psychology, the science and practice of psychology, and psychology's contribution to public policy. , 58, 296-304. Thomas, D. F., Menz, F. E., & Rosenthal, D.A. (2001). Employment outcome expectancies: Consensus among consumers, providers, and funding agents of community rehabilitation programs. Journal of Rehabilitation, 67 (3), 24-32. John F. Kosciulek Michigan State University Michigan State University, at East Lansing; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855. It opened in 1857 as Michigan Agricultural College, the first state agricultural college. John F. Kosciulek, Michigan State University Email:
Table 1
CRP Staff Participant Demographic Characteristics (N=129)
Variable n Valid %
Gender
Female 79 61
Male 50 39
Race/Ethnic Group
American Indian or Alaska Native 2 <2
Black or African American 18 13
Hispanic or Latino 1 <1
White 108 84
CRP Job Classification
Administration/Management 49 38
Clerical/Support Staff 13 10
Direct Services/Clinical 48 37
Production/Manufacturing 19 15
Table 2
Consumer Participant Demographic Characteristics (N=112)
Variable n Valid %
Gender
Female 66 59
Male 46 41
Race/Ethnic Group
American Indian or Alaska Native 1 <1
Asian 2 <1
Black or African American 23 21
White 86 77
Marital Status
Never Married 81 72
Married 12 11
Divorced 14 12
Separated 4 4
Widowed 1 <1
Major Disability Category
Brain Injury 1 <1
Hearing Impairment/Deafness 4 4
Learning Disability 13 11
Mental Retardation 31 28
Psychiatric Disability 27 24
Substance Abuse 13 11
Visual Impairment/Blindness I <1
Other 22 20
Occupational Category
Professional/Managerial/Technical 12 11
Clerical/Sales 24 22
Service 35 31
Agricultural/Fishing/Forestry 4 4
Processing 3 2
Machine Trades 7 6
Benchwork 12 11
Structural Work 8 7
Miscellaneous 7 6
Health Insurance Available from Employer
Yes 29 26
No 83 74
|
|
||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion