A study of preservice elementary teachers' technology skill preparedness and examples of how it can be increased.

The National Survey on Information Technology in Teacher Education (Moursund & Bielefeldt, 1999) supported that "In order to provide models for change, researchers, professional societies, and education agencies should--on an ongoing basis--identify, study, and disseminate examples of effective technology integration that reflect the current needs in both teacher education and K-12 schools" (p. 10). In an attempt to meet this challenge this case paper documents how one university addressed the assessment of technology skills needed by elementary preservice teachers and how it moved to close the gap between those identified needs and the level of elementary student teacher technology preparedness. This procedure could serve as a model for other universities who are facing the same challenge.

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Our technological-based society is advancing at such a rapid pace that universities are struggling to prepare students with the technology skills needed for today. Millions of dollars are being poured into the purchase of technological equipment for today's classrooms, but the hardware is worthless if classroom teachers are unfamiliar with the function and educational application of the technology. Therefore, teacher training in the use of technology is needed in many of today's schools. Education Week's 1999 National Survey of Teachers' Use of Digital Content conducted by Education Market Research found that "Nearly four out of ten teachers say their students don't use classroom computers at all during a typical week," and 35% of the teachers reported they "haven't had enough training" as one reason they do not use software for instruction (Fatemi, 1999). However, it is a challenge for teacher education programs to determine the skills needed by preservice teachers and to select ways these skills can be inco rporated into a heavy course requirement load.

Purpose

This study had five purposes, including: (a) to determine the level of preparedness in the use of technology that elementary administrators of the university's service area schools expect of beginning teachers, (b) to determine elementary student teachers' preparedness and use of technology during their student teaching experience, (c) to identify the current level of experiences undergraduate students receive in technology through the required teacher education courses taught at a Midwestern university, (d) to develop and implement curricular adjustments to increase the technology skill preparedness of preservice teachers, and (e) to evaluate the effectiveness of the plan through a follow-up study of elementary student teachers two years later.

Statement of the Problem

Many preservice teachers are not prepared to use technology in the elementary classroom and there is limited information on what technology skills are currently expected of elementary student teachers during their student teaching experience. Numerous courses in teacher education are not preparing preservice teachers to use technology because specific technology skill needs have not been identified, and there is a lack of technology integration modeled by professors in teacher education courses.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Numerous studies have documented the lack of technological preparedness of preservice teachers (Beaver, 1990; Berger, Carlson, & Novak, 1989; Brooks & Kopp, 1989; Roblyer, 1994). More computer experience and preservice training is desired. In addition to providing more experience and training, determining which technology competencies to require has also been a major challenge faced by universities. State standards and guidelines for computer/technology literacy developed by the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) (1992), and adopted by The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) (1992), have helped clarify this challenge.

Technology Preparedness

Studies have shown that preservice teachers are inadequately prepared to use instructional technology and effectively integrate technology into the curriculum (Beaver, 1990; Brooks & Kopp, 1989; Roblyer, 1994). A survey of 1100 Michigan preservice teachers indicated that 90% wanted more experience using computers (Berger, Carlson & Novak, 1989). Hurteau's 1990 survey of New York State computer-using teachers supports this need for more computer experience as it reveals that only 20% felt they had received sufficient preservice training. Future teachers may realize that computer literacy and application improves instruction, and is also an advantage in the competitive teacher hiring process.

Elementary teachers' attitudes toward and use of technology play a critical role in preparing tomorrow's workforce in the use of technology. Well-trained teachers who integrate technology into their classroom curriculum help students feel comfortable using technology. The Miliken Exchange and ISTE (Moursund & Bielefeldt, 1999) conducted a national survey of U.S. schools, colleges, and departments of education to determine how they prepared new teachers to use information technology in their work. They found that "Faculty information technology skills tend to be comparable to the information technology skills of the students they teach; however, most faculty do not model use of those information technology skills in teaching," (p. 28). Survey findings also included the fact that "The Integration factor--composed of items that addressed graduates' classroom skills and the actual use of information technology during college training--was the best predictor of...basic technology proficiency," (p. 28), and "to inc rease the technology proficiency of new teachers in K-12 classrooms, training institutions should increase the level of technology integration in their own academic programs," (p. 10).

Technology Competencies

Defining the specific technology skills that should be included in teacher education training courses is a challenging task. Should we prepare preservice teachers for the future, although many elementary schools are not presently equipped with the latest technology; or should we prepare preservice teachers for the present, although there is a considerable amount of technology in schools that is already outdated? A balance must be struck between these two options. Individual states are emphasizing the need for technology competency in their requirements. For example, standards five and seven, two of the ten standards in "The Missouri Standards for Teacher Education Programs" (MoSTEP, 1999)," relate specifically to technology competencies. Standard five states, "The preservice teacher uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students' development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills" (MoSTEP, 1999). Standard seven states, "The preservice teacher models effective verbal, n onverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom" (MoSTEP, 1999).

Bedell (1994) investigated how school principals and media specialists in elementary and secondary schools perceive the preparation of preservice teachers regarding media and technology skills. Findings indicated that both groups believed emphasis should be placed on computer literacy and the ability to operate and use computer software programs in the classroom. The principals and media specialists also believed the ability to select, use, and integrate appropriate instructional software in the curriculum was an important skill for beginning teachers to demonstrate.

After completing a comprehensive evaluation process (Thomas et al., 1994), ISTE (1992), developed a list of thirteen specific guidelines for computer/technology literacy in teacher preparation programs. These guidelines were adopted by NCATE (1992), and formed the most widely accepted list of technology competencies. These 13 competencies are critical skills to consider when evaluating technology competencies in any teacher education program.

METHODOLOGY

This study viewed the technology preparedness of preservice teachers through the use of a triangulated evaluation process. First, elementary administrators' technology skill expectations of beginning teachers were analyzed. Second, student teachers' assessment of preparedness and use of technology in student teaching were analyzed. Third, curriculum and instruction course technology skill requirements were analyzed. The administrators' expectations and student teachers' preparedness and use of technology, compared with the technology skill requirements in the teacher education courses, yielded insight into specific areas of strength and need. These insights resulted in curricular changes in university teacher education courses.

The second part of this study examined the implementation of curricular changes in the teacher education courses at a Midwestern university based on the identified areas of need and evaluated the effectiveness of those changes two years later through a follow-up study of student teachers.

Research Design

Two research designs, descriptive and statistical, were used in this study. Descriptive research methods were used to analyze three different surveys, and two statistical research methods were used to compare the initial Student Teacher Survey with the Follow-up Student Teacher Survey.

Descriptive research in the form of surveys was used to determine: (a) the technology skills that elementary administrators felt beginning teachers should be able to demonstrate, (b) the technology skills required of student teachers and their preparedness in technology, and (c) the skills that are required in the education courses. Since each survey's format was different, statistical comparison between surveys was not possible; therefore, only interpretive comparisons were made.

Statistical research was used to compare the Student Teacher Survey and the Follow-up Student Teacher Survey using two procedures. First, a t-test was used to compare the mean preparedness scores of student teachers in the initial study with the mean preparedness score of student teachers in the follow-up study (mean scores were determined by averaging 1's and 2's; response codes: 1 = prepared to use and did use in student teaching, and 2 = prepared to use but did not use in student teaching). A second t-test was used to compare the mean scores, based on a rating scale of 1, 2, or 3 (response code: 3 not prepared to use, but was expected to use in student teaching) in the initial study with the mean score of "3" ratings in the follow-up study. An alpha level of .05 was used for both t-tests to challenge the null hypothesis.

Description of Survey Populations

Four different populations were surveyed in this study. The populations included: (a) all (238) elementary public school administrators in the Midwestern university's service area, (b) all (57) Fall 1996 elementary school student teachers, (c) all (12) full-time university faculty members in the curriculum and instruction department at the Midwestern university, and (d) all (111) Fall, 1998 and Spring, 1999 elementary school student teachers. These populations were considered representative of the groups throughout the Midwest. The groups used in this study are discussed in the following sections.

Elementary administrators. An "Administrator Survey Regarding Preparedness of Beginning Teachers" was mailed to 238 administrators in the Midwestern university's service area. The surveys were mailed to administrators in three states: (a) Missouri (MO), 198 surveys, (b) Iowa (IA), 21 surveys, and (c) Nebraska (NE), 19 surveys. There was a return rate of 58%, with 138 surveys returned. The extremely high return rate shows that this survey hit a very popular topic. This return rate was considered to be representative of the total population.

Elementary student teachers. A "Student Survey Regarding Media and Technology Preparedness" was mailed to 57 elementary Fall, 1996 student teachers. Twenty-six surveys were returned which was a 46% return rate. This was also an exceptionally high return rate and shows the importance of this topic to student teachers.

Technology skills in education courses. A "Department of Curriculum and Instruction Survey--Spring, 1997" was completed for 11 courses taught by full-time faculty members at a Midwestern university at a departmental meeting in December, 1996. Thirty-two surveys were completed for the 11 courses required for all elementary education majors. Each faculty member who had taught the course during the last two years completed a survey about the technology skills they had required when teaching that course.

Follow-up elementary student teachers. A "Student Survey Regarding Media and Technology Preparedness" follow-up survey was mailed to 111 elementary Fall, 1998 and Spring, 1999 student teachers. Forty surveys were returned which was a 36% return rate. The low return rate may be attributed to the lack of updated addresses for the Fall, 1998 student teachers because the survey was mailed in April, 1999. However, the return was determined to be adequate for the department's purpose.

Instrumentation 

A Technology Task Team was formed during Fall, 1996 to develop a plan for the assessment and improvement of preservice teachers' technology skills. The team decided to develop surveys for elementary administrators, student teachers, and curriculum and instruction faculty members concerning the technology preparedness of preservice teachers. During a review of the literature, they found Bedell's (1994) 19-item survey designed for principals and media specialists to determine the technology skills that they believed should be demonstrated by beginning teachers. "Experts in the field of Educational Technology reviewed the questionnaire and provided feedback on the content validity. Revisions in the questionnaire were made by the researcher as a result of comments and suggestions from the pilot study," (Bedell, 1994, p. 15). The review of the literature concerning technology competencies revealed additional technology skills that were added to the survey through a Delphi technique by the Technology Task Team, an expert group, to give a broader and more current view of technology skill expectations. The 14 skills added were: (a) operating an opaque projector, (b) operating technology to duplicate instructional material, (c) accessing public domain software, (d) accessing resources for special education assistive technology, (e) creating a personal web page (home page), (D developing instructional activities related to computer software programs, (g) developing audio recordings, (h) utilizing E-mail, (i) awareness of technology's ethical and legal issues, (j) teaching students how to use computers, (k) teaching students keyboarding skills, (l) evaluating and selecting software, (in) assessing students' use of software, and (n) integrating computer technology-based instruction into preparing preservice teachers. These items were used on the "Administrator Survey Regarding Media and Technology Preparedness of Beginning Teachers" and on the "Student Survey Regarding Media and Technology Preparedness." The reliability of t hese instruments has not been documented according to the author.

Elementary administrators survey. The "Administrator Survey Regarding Media and Technology Preparedness of Beginning Teachers" was used to determine the extent to which administrators agreed upon specific skills that a beginning teacher should be able to demonstrate. Demographic information, including: (a) current position, (b) years of experience, (c) school size, (d) state, (e) institutional focus, (f) district population (rural, suburban or urban), (g) number of computers in school, and (h) person responsible for technology, was requested at the top of the survey. The survey contained 32 Likert scale questions and one open-ended question. Twenty-three of the 32 items were identical to the skills listed on the "Department of Curriculum and Instruction Technology Survey." Subjects were asked to complete a four-part Likert scale to indicate whether they "strongly agreed," "agreed," "disagreed," or "strongly disagreed" that beginning teachers should he able to demonstrate knowledge and skill in each of the 32 stated technology competencies. The open-ended question asked the subjects to list the three to five skills they felt should be emphasized when preparing preservice teachers in media and technology.

The content of the Administrator's Survey was validated because the administrators' average for all 32 items ranged from 1.152 on "operating a VCR player and monitor" to 2.235 on "creating a personal web page." A "1" rating represented "strongly agree," and a "2" rating represented agree," "3" rating represented "disagree" and a "4" rating represented "strongly disagree" that beginning teachers should be able to demonstrate this skill. Eight out of 10 of the highest ranked items involved computer technology. The use of the VCR and overhead were the only two items in the top 10 that were not computer-related.

Elementary student teachers survey. The "Student Survey Regarding Media and Technology Preparedness" used the same 32 items that were listed on the Administrator's Survey. On the first 23 items, the student teachers evaluated their preparedness and expectation to use each skill during student teaching. A category scale was used to determine the technology preparedness and the skills required in student teaching. The category scale had four descriptors, including: (a) prepared to use, and did use in my student teaching, (b) prepared to use, but did not use in my student teaching, (c) not prepared to use, but was expected to use in my student teaching, and (d) not prepared to use, but was not expected to use in my student teaching. On the second part of the survey, subjects responded to two different scales on each of nine items. Subjects were asked to complete a "yes" or "no" category scale to show if the technology skill was required during their student teaching experience, and then they were asked to comple te a three-part Likert scale to indicate whether they felt "proficient," "somewhat prepared," or "unprepared" in each of the nine technology skills. Eight of these nine items related to computer technology skills, and the task team felt it was important to know students' competency rating on these items in addition to the student teaching expectation information. The third part of the survey was an open-ended question asking the subjects to list the three to five media and technology skills they believed should be emphasized in the teacher preparation program.

Education courses survey. The "Department of Curriculum and Instruction Technology Survey" was used to determine the level of experience in technology that was required of elementary education students. A separate survey was completed for each section of each course in the required professional education sequence. The "Level of Experience" for technology skills was defined by three categories: (a) required course activity, (b) elective course activity, and (c) not used by students. Only the first 23 items were listed on the education courses survey because the Technology Task Team determined that the additional nine items listed on the Administrators' and Student Teachers' Surveys were not a part of current course requirements.

RESULTS

The results of the three surveys highlighted a need for increased technology skill preparedness for preservice teachers. Computer technology skills received the highest ranking by elementary administrators and were listed most frequently as "skills to emphasize when preparing preservice teachers" in their free response question. The Student Teacher Surveys revealed areas of discrepancy between skills that were expected during student teaching and the level of proficiency of student teachers in those skills. The student teachers' free response listing of "skills to emphasize when preparing preservice teachers" were all skills related to computer technology. The education course surveys showed that most skills were not consistently required in the education courses. Therefore, the need to adjust the curriculum to require the identified skills was evident.

Elementary administrators. The majority (97%) of administrators chose to complete the survey themselves and their average years of school administrative experience was 17 years with a range of 1 to 43 years. School size averaged 407 students with a range of 61 to 1400. The percentage of responses by state, (MO 84%, NE 10% and IA 6%), closely mirrored the percentage of surveys mailed to each state. The school district populations, (Rural 63%, Suburban 29%, and Urban 8%), accurately reflected the population of the Midwestern university's service area. The average number of computers in each school was 46 with a range of 12 to 200.

On 15 of the 32 items, 90% or more of the administrators rated the item as "strongly agree that beginning teachers should be able to demonstrate knowledge and skill in (SA = 1)" or "agree that beginning teachers should be able to demonstrate knowledge and skill in (A = 2)." The survey's internal consistency was validated in the similar responses to "operating an opaque projector" with a mean of 1.941, as compared to "utilizing technology to develop bulletin boards" with a mean of 1.985, which are essentially the same skill. The 15 items rated important by at least 90% of the administrators were: operating a VCR player and monitor, operating basic word processing software, operating CD ROMs, operating an overhead projector, teaching students how to use computers, integrating computer technology-based instruction into various curriculum domains, operating IBM computers, awareness of technology's ethical and legal issues, operating technology to duplicate instructional materials, evaluating and selecting softwar e, accessing online resources, assessing students' use of software, using e-mail, operating a camcorder, and teaching students keyboarding skills.

The administrators' free response listing of three to five media and technology skills that should be emphasized when preparing preservice teachers gave significant insight into specific skill needs. Basic computer knowledge/literacy, online resources, integrating computer technology-based instruction into various curricular domains and basic word processing were listed by at least 32% of the administrators. Ten additional items listed by at least 10% of the administrators all related to computer technology and included (in order of frequency in listing): use of e-mail, teaching students how to use computers, teaching students keyboarding skills, instructional activities related to computer software programs, evaluating and selecting software based on curricular goals, basic computer/printer maintenance, assessing students' use of software, technology's ethical and legal issues, technology as a "tool" for learning, and operating CD-ROMs.

Elementary student teachers. The student teachers recorded their preparation to use specific skills, as well as the actual use of the skills during student teaching. The mean scores varied from 1.000 on "VCR player and monitor" with all of the students teachers feeling prepared to use and also using the VCR player and monitor during student teaching, to a mean of 2.962 in "technology to produce slides." The overhead projector received the second highest rating with a mean of 1.077. This is not surprising, since the VCR and overhead projector are easily obtainable and frequently used in most classrooms. The student teachers felt prepared (mean of 1.0 to 2.0) in several areas of technology, including: overhead projector, VCR player and monitor, camcorder, Apple computers, Macintosh computers, IBM computers, word processing software, spreadsheet software, database software, and overhead transparencies.

An analysis of the skills the elementary student teachers were not prepared to use, but were expected to use in student teaching, gave insight into the skills that need to be included in the teacher education program. Thirty-five percent of the student teachers expressed this rating for "public domain software" and "technology to produce slides." Twenty-seven percent of the teachers were expected to use online resources and computer interactive video programs, but were not prepared. Twenty-three percent rated e-mail and technology to produce bulletin boards in this category. These are crucial areas to consider, because the student teachers were placed in a situation where these skills were required, yet they did not feel prepared to perform these skills.

These skills were identified as "top priority" skills to be considered for inclusion in education course requirements.

The second part of the student teachers' survey rated nine skills using two scales: (a) "yes" or "no" response to show if the skill was used during student teaching, and (b) the student teacher's competency rating in performing the skill was identified as "proficient," "somewhat proficient," or "unprepared." Fifty percent of the student teachers felt "proficient" in "develop audio recordings" and "teach students keyboarding skills." By comparing "yes, expected to do in student teaching" responses with "proficient" responses, several areas of discrepancy were noted.

These skills were also identified as "top priority" skills to be considered for inclusion in education course requirements.

The student teachers' free response of three to five media and technology skills that should be emphasized in the teacher preparation program showed that all of the most frequently listed skills related to computer-technology. The use of online resources was listed by 55% of the student teachers and integrating computer technology-based instruction into various curricular domains was listed by 23% of the student teachers.

Technology skills in education courses. On the education course surveys, faculty members noted the technology used in each required course by rating each of 23 technology skills as a/an: (a) required activity, (b) elective activity, or (c) not used by students. The mean scores ranged from 1.7 10 to 2.645 and indicated that most of the skills were elective activities in the teacher education courses. Since multiple sections of specific courses were included in the 32 surveys, an analysis was conducted to see which skills were a "required activity" in all sections of the course. Only five of the 23 skills were required in all reporting sections of at least one course, and some of these requirements had been recently added to the course curriculum and had not been experienced by the student teachers.

Comparison of survey results. There was considerable agreement between the elementary administrators' surveys and student teachers' surveys concerning technology skills. The highest mean scores for both groups were in: (a) operating a VCR player and monitor (Adm. 1.152, St.Tch. 1.000), (b) operating an overhead projector (Adm. 1.297, St. Tch. 1.072) and (c) operating basic word processing software (Adm. 1.197, St.Tch. 1.269). This shows that administrators value these skills and the Midwestern university's elementary student teachers felt prepared to use them and were required to use them during their student teaching experience. There was also considerable agreement in the free response items listed by the elementary administrators and student teachers that show the skills that should be emphasized with preservice teachers. The results are summarized in Table 4.

Implementation of curricular adjustments. The study of the related literature and the results of the surveys indicated that student teachers needed more training in computer-related technology skills and the integration of computer applications within the teacher education courses. The Curriculum and Instruction faculty identified technology skills needed by preservice teachers based on the analysis of the Student Teacher Surveys, the Administrator Surveys, and the ISTE guidelines (1992). Technology skill requirements were then incorporated into each undergraduate course, with the entire faculty working together to identify the best fit between specific course requirements and technology skills. For example, in the Reading and Language Arts Methods course, students were required to write a "Jack Tale" representing the culture and economy of a specific country, and three computer graphics were required to illustrate the story. That course also required the evaluation of 10 web sites related to reading/literacy . The Social Studies Methods course required a PowerPoint presentation explaining each group's thematic unit. Each practicum required lesson plans that demonstrated the appropriate use of integration with elementary students. These technology skill requirements were designated as Professional Portfolio artifacts that students were required to revise during the specific course and the same items were reviewed in students' educational exit portfolios during their professional semester. This required students to use word processing skills in assignments and encouraged the development of computer competency. A list of the technology skills and the courses where they are required will be mailed upon request by the researcher.

In addition to integrating technology skill requirements into specific courses, faculty members were strongly encouraged to incorporate computer technology into their classroom instruction. Faculty evaluations focused on the use of technology, in addition to the other areas of teaching effectiveness. The chair of the department provided opportunities during department meetings for faculty members to share specific methods of technology integration that had proven beneficial in their courses. Faculty members served as mentors to other faculty members who desired to learn specific technology skills. Time-saving technology skills, such as the use of an e-mail personal distribution list for easy contact with students in a course and a computerized grading program, were modeled and encouraged. Training in distance learning techniques and web page development were offered to the faculty members. Several area school districts were invited to showcase the numerous ways that technology integration was used in their sc hools during a one-half day meeting. This provided faculty members with a "real world" view of the type of technology equipment and activities that elementary students may experience. Carol Tjeerdsma, a teacher education faculty member, commented,

My use of technology has increase by "light years" over the past couple of years! I now have a web-supplemented math course that I developed on Course-Info, use PowerPoint for lectures and presentations, require Internet article searches and reviews from students and often search the Web myself for additional information on a topic. In class, I often utilize links to information for students to reference and regularly communicate with students through Course-Info and e-mail.

All of these changes were a direct result of the emphasis placed on technology in the Curriculum and Instruction Department.

These training opportunities provided faculty members with the skills needed to implement the technology skill requirements that had been added to the courses. In consideration of the heavy teaching/advising/researching load carried by the faculty members, training sessions were frequently held during scheduled departmental meetings, so additional time was not required. Curriculum and Instruction faculty members were made aware that the consistent modeling and use of technology by faculty members directly impacted preservice teachers and their ease of including technology into their teaching.

Follow-up study of student teachers. Two years after the implementation of the revised course requirements, a student teacher follow-up study was conducted to assess progress in the area of technology skill preparedness. In the follow-up study, the technology skills that the student teachers felt should be emphasized in preparing student teachers had shifted from basic computer skills, such as those ranked as 1, 3, and 4 in Table 4, to the application of technology skills in the elementary classroom (Table 5).

The level of technology preparedness of student teachers in the initial study was compared with the technology preparedness of student teachers in the follow-up study (1 = prepared to use and did use in my student teaching and 2 = prepared to use but did not use in my student teaching). The initial student teacher surveys had a mean score of 15.25, and the follow-up surveys had a mean score of 18.69; therefore, the follow-up group scored statistically significantly higher than the initial group on the level of technology preparedness, at p<.05 with a p = .045.

A comparison of the mean "3" scores (not prepared to use, but was expected to use in my student teaching) on the two surveys also showed an increase in the technology preparedness of the follow-up group over the initial group. The mean score of the initial survey was 3.5 and the mean score of the follow-up group was 1.48. A t-test showed that the mean of the follow-up survey was statistically significantly lower (p<.05) than the mean of the initial group with p = .039. This indicates that the student teachers in the follow-up survey encountered fewer technology skills that they were not prepared to use, but were expected to use during student teaching, than the student teachers in the initial survey.

A chi-square analysis of individual skills indicates that the student teachers in the follow-up group scored statistically significantly higher than the initial group on the four skills listed in Table 6.

Overall, the student teachers in the follow-up study showed significant progress in their technology preparedness over the student teachers in the initial study. Shortly before student teaching, T. J. Schneckloth, an elementary education major, listed a few ways that he had learned to use technology with students. He wrote,

The main thing that I have learned about technology is that it can be integrated into any subject area, provided that the resources are available. Students can grasp computer concepts at an early age. When I was in school, we did not start typing until the seventh grade, but at our lab school the students start typing in the first grade. My favorite programs to use with students are Hyperstudio, Word and Inspiration. Hyperstudio is similar to PowerPoint, but I think it is more kid friendly. I have mainly used it with students to present projects that can be presented on a Smartboard. Students use Word to type papers. Inspiration 6 is a web maker, and it is very kid friendly. It has thousands of clipart graphics that students can use in their web. It also has web templates the students can choose from, or the students can create their own web. I use this when we brainstorm and it is also excellent for compare and contrast activities.

It appears that the curricular adjustments made a positive difference in the technology preparedness of the Midwestern university's student teachers. Tim Mattson, principal in North Kansas City, Missouri, noted,

I have been very impressed with the technical "savvy" that recent Northwest teachers and student teachers have demonstrated in my building. My new teachers have a strong knowledge base for data systems used within our school setting and are capable of integrating the technology within existing curricular frameworks, moving away from the more traditional approach of technology used as enrichment. Both student teachers and Northwest graduates possess the technological expertise to move education and technology forward, intertwined as one curricular objective and not separate entities.

CONCLUSION

The process of identifying the technology skills desired by elementary administrators, acquired by elementary student teachers, and taught in teacher education courses is challenging; but determining how to bridge the gap between the level of expectancy and implementation is even more challenging. This research study outlines the process that one university followed in attempting to equip its preservice teachers with the technology skills needed to prepare them for the elementary classroom. The department of curriculum and instruction was able to use the information gained from three surveys to modify the curriculum. The follow-up study shows that this process was effective in increasing the preparedness of student teachers, and it also shows that there are areas related to the application of technology where emphasis is still needed.

Implications

* Universities who desire to bridge the gap between preservice teacher current technology use and desired technology use could use surveys of elementary administrators, student teachers, and education faculty members to determine technology needs and the current level of technology expectations as their own information gathering tools.

* The process of implementing identified technology skills into course requirements could be replicated.

* The importance of teaching technology skills to faculty members and making it a departmental priority appears to be a factor in the successful improvement of preservice teacher technology skill preparedness.

* A second follow-up study, using the recently published ISTE National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) with performance profiles for four categories, including Student Teaching/Internship, and First-Year Teaching is planned. These standards for teachers and performance profiles can be accessed online at: http://cnets.iste.org perfprofiles.html

Table 1

Skills Student Teachers Were Expected to Use in Student Teaching, But
Were Not Prepared to Use

Rank       Skill                        No. of Responses  Percentage

1     Public domain software                   9             35%
1     Technology to produce slides             9             35%
2     Online resources                         7             27%
2     Computer interactive video prog.         7             27%
3     E-mail                                   6             23%
3     Opaque projector                         6             23%

Number of respondents - 26

Table 2

Student Teachers Areas of Discrepancy Between Expectation and
Proficiency

                                       Expected of
Skill                                Student Teachers

Instructional activities related to        44%
 software
Evaluate and select software               39%
Assess students' use of software           50%
Technology's ethical & legal issues        39%
Teach students how to use computers        60%

                                       Student Teachers
Skill                                "Proficient" in Skill

Instructional activities related to           23%
 software
Evaluate and select software                  22%
Assess students' use of software              35%
Technology's ethical & legal issues           24%
Teach students how to use computers           48%

Number of respondents - 26

Table 3

Analysis of Technology Skills Required in All Sections of Education
Courses

Skill                     Course

Operate a VCR player and  Literature for the Elementary
 monitor                   School
Use Macintosh computers   Teaching Reading/Language Arts
Use graphics software     Teaching Reading/Language Arts
Technology to produce     Literature for the Elementary
 transparencies            School
Use E-mail                Reporting Pupil Progress

Table 4

Free Response Listing of Technology Skills to Emphasize with Preservice
Teachers

Adm.  S.T.                                      Adm.  Adm.  S.T.  S.T.
Rank  Rank  Skill                               #     %     #     %

1     3     Basic computer knowledge/literacy   63    59%    4    18%
2     1     Online resources; Internet, WWW     38    36%   12    55%
3     2     Integrating computer into           36    34%    5    23%
             instruction
4     0     Basic word processing software      34    32%    0    0%
5     4     E-mail                              23    22%    3    14%
6     0     Teaching students to use computers  22    21%    0    0%

Adm. - Elementary Administrators Administrators - 106 respondents

S.T. - Elementary Student Teachers Student Teachers - 22 respondents

Table 5

Technology Skills to Emphasize With Preservice Teachers from Follow-up
Student Teachers

S.T.                                    S.T.   S.T.
Rank  Skill Description                 Resp.   %

 1    Integrating computer into          10    32%
       instruction
 1    Evaluate and select software       10    32%
 2    Develop instructional activities    9    29%
       related to computer software
       programs

Student Teachers in Follow-up Study - 31 respondents

Table 6

Difference in Technology Skills of Student Teachers in Follow-up Survey
Over Initial Student Teachers Survey

Skill                                p value

Online resources                      .016 *
Public domain software                .008 *
E-mail                                .022 *
Integrate computer into instruction   .046 *

chi-square -- p<.05

Acknowledgements

Special thanks goes to the survey developers, V. Andree' Bayliss, M. Jean Bouas, Margaret Drew, Shirley Steffens, Pretti Suppal, and Jerry Wright, who served on the Technology Task Team that spearheaded this project, to Terry King who helped run the statistical procedures on the survey data, and to Philip Messner who assisted with the preparation of this manuscript.

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