A glossary of developmental education and learning assistance terms.

It is critical to periodically reexamine the basic language used within a profession. Language not only reflects past and current practice, it also guides the future. As the practice advances and changes, so must the language to describe it. This reexamination of basic terms used in developmental education and learning assistance provides an opportunity to transform its work, expand borders, and redefine its essential role within postsecondary education. The glossary is grounded in the previous version of it as well as extensive review by practitioners and leaders in the field. The complexity of the language has increased as well as its connection with other fields within education. This glossary is offered to help guide practices to better meet institutional and student needs.

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It has been 15 years since the first glossary of terms for the field of developmental education and learning assistance was published (Rubin, 1991). Much has changed with the profession in that time period. Just as the old saying states, "form follows function," it is not surprising that the language used to describe and define a field continues to reflect the changes reflected in its practice. This glossary is a heavy revision of the previous edition (Rubin, 1991). Nearly two-thirds of the terms from the first edition were revised. While only five terms were deleted, nearly 60 were added. This reflects the growth and increased sophistication of the field as well as appropriate integration of terms from related academic disciplines. Obviously, there are more extensive dictionaries for focused areas of the field, especially in reading and writing. However, only the most essential terms were included in this general purpose glossary.

Glossary Revision Process

There were four major contributing factors to this current edition of the glossary. The first is the pioneering work of the first edition of the glossary by the College Reading and Learning Association Taskforce on Professional Language (Rubin, 1991). This glossary was expanded by the coauthors of the first edition of the NADE Self-Evaluation Guides (Clark-Thayer, 1995). A second factor in the glossary presented here was the role of the leading organizations in the field. Draft copies of the glossary were provided to five professional associations: the Association for the Tutoring Profession, the College Reading and Learning Association, the National Association for Developmental Education (NADE), the National College Learning Center Association, and the National Tutoring Association. In addition, the draft glossary was provided to ten national committees representing the academic disciplines within those five professional associations, the NADE Certification Board and field reviewers, and three national centers (the Center for Research in Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, the Learning Support Centers in Higher Education, and the National Center for Developmental Education). Helpful suggestions were received from individuals in these organizations. A third factor in revision of the glossary was a careful comparison with other educational dictionaries for inclusion of appropriate terms. These contributions are noted in the citations within the glossary.

The final contributing factor in improving and validating the glossary was a team of field reviewers from different types of institutions across the nation. They recommended terms for inclusion, edited current entries, and wrote new ones. As both scholars and service providers, they validated the utility of the glossary for the field today. Following are the team members: David Arendale, Dorie AuCoin, Leslie Boon, Susan Clark-Thayer, Jennifer Cole, Wilma Dulin, Irene Duranczyk, Carol Eades, Sabine Endicott, Marjorie Ginsberg, Jeanne Higbee, Gene Kerstiens, Dana Lundell, Terri Massie-Burrell, Howard Masuda, Jane McGrath, Ben Moulton, Jane Neuberger, Donald Opitz, Karen Patty-Graham, Danielle Peterson, Gladys Shaw, Karin Winnard, and Pepe Zerda.

Changes in the Glossary

As stated earlier, there has been considerable change in the glossary through the heavy revision of existing terms and the introduction of nearly 60 new ones. Building on the existing glossary, additional terms were added related to mathematics and writing. There was a major expansion of terms related to race, class, and culture since the profession is growing in its recognition of them on the learning process (Higbee, Lundell, & Duranczyk, 2003). Some of the terms are critical literacy, critical pedagogy, diverse students, historically-underrepresented students, inclusion, multicultural developmental education, multicultural education, people of color, universal design, and universal instructional design. This builds on the student-centered learning approach by many educators in this field. A second expansion area for the glossary was integration of more terms from cognitive psychology such as attribution, cognitive domain, cognitive strategies, locus of control, and self-efficacy. Obviously many more terms could have been included in the glossary, but those selected were the ones which commonly appear in the literature published by the professional associations that represent the field.

The third major change in the glossary is the addition of recommended language usage for some of the most important glossary terms: academically-underprepared student, developmental student, and remedial student. The glossary provides an example of proper use of the glossary term in writing for a publication, For example, rather than using the term developmental students, it is suggested to instead refer to them as students with developmental issues in college algebra. This follows the admonition from the American Psychological Association in the 5th edition of their publication style manual (APA, 2001, pp. 63-65) to avoid labeling of people and to put the person first when describing a characteristic about him or her. While this may seem a subtle difference in language use, it may be more important than many in the profession understand. Many students who enroll in a remedial or developmental education course only do so in one specific discipline area (e.g., math, reading, writing). Yet, these students are commonly classified as being developmental or are described by another term previously mentioned. This leaves the impression that they have academic challenges in most academic disciplines and skills. While those within the profession may understand the nuances of the language, policy makers and the general public probably do not. This may illuminate current controversies of policy and funding that dominate the field (Arendale, 2005). Older language choices (i.e., remedial students, developmental students) can have a direct or indirect impact upon the stigma that students and developmental education programs sometimes experience and negative consequences that occur as a result (Pedlety, 2001; Schmidt, et al., 2005). This issue needs to be more fully examined in a separate publication concerning language usage of these key terms.

References

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Dembo, M. H. (1994). Applying educational psychology (5th ed.). New York: Longman.

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Duranczyk, I. M. (2004). Voices of underprepared university students: Outcomes of developmental mathematics education. (Doctoral dissertation, Grambling State University, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65(06), 2111B.

Eastridge, O., & Price, U. (Eds.). (1969). Reading dictionary. Lenoir, NC: Smith Printing Company.

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Ferrell, G. M. (1973). The relationship of scores on a measure of test-wiseness to performance on teacher-made objective achievement examinations and on standardized ability and achievement tests, to grade-point average, and to sex for each of five high school samples. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California.

Gabelnick, F., MacGregor, J., Matthew, R. S., & Smith, B. L. (1990). Learning communities: Creating connections among students, faculty, and disciplines. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 41. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). (1981). A dictionary of reading and related terms. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Higbee, J. L. (Ed.). (2003). Curriculum transformation and disability: Implementing universal design in higher education. Retrieved July 30, 2007, from Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. Web site: http://www.education.umn.edu/CRDEUL/publications.html

Higbee, J. L., Lundell, D. B., & Duranczyk, I. M. (Eds.). (2003). Multiculturalism in developmental education. Retrieved July 30, 2007 from Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. Web site: http://www.education.umn.edu/CRDEUL/publications.html

Kerstiens, G. (1986, April 19). Time-critical reading comprehension tests and developmental students. Paper delivered at the 1986 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED278700).

Kerstiens, G. (1990). A slow look at speeded reading comprehension tests. Review of Research in Developmental Education, 7(3), 1-6.

Koski, W. S., & Levin, H. M. (1998). Replacing remediation with acceleration in higher education: Preliminary report on literature review and initial interviews. Stanford, CA: National Center for Postsecondary Improvement, School of Education, Stanford University.

Materniak, G., & Williams, A. (1987). CAS standards and guidelines for learning assistance programs. Journal of Developmental Education, 11(1), 12-18,

National Association for Developmental Education. (1995). Developmental education goals & definition. Carol Stream, IL: Author. Retrieved July 24, 2005, from http://nade.net/ L.%20nade_store.htm

Page, G. T., & Thomas, J. B. (Eds.). (1980). International dictionary of education. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Pedlety, M. (2001). Stigma. In J. L. Higbee, D. B. Lundell, & I. M. Duranczyk (Eds.). 2001: A developmental odyssey. Warrensburg, MO: National Association for Developmental Education.

Reder, L. M., & Anderson, J. R. (1980). A partial resolution of the paradox of interference: The role of integrating knowledge. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 447-474.

Rubin, M. (1991). A glossary of developmental education terms compiled by the CRLA Task Force on Professional Language for College Reading and Learning. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 22(2), 1-13.

Schmidt, J. C., Bellcourt, M. A., Xiong, K. M., Wigfield, A. M., Peterson, I. L. B., Halbert, S. D., Woodstrom, L. A., Vang, E. M., and Higbee, J. L. (2005). Sharing our experiences: General College students give voice to their perspectives of GC. In J. L. Higbee, D. B Lundell, and D. R. Arendale (Eds.). The General College vision: Integrating intellectual growth, multicultural perspectives, and student development (pp. 17-33). Retrieved July 30, 2007, from Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. Web site: http://www.education.umn.edu/CRDEUL/publications.html

Scriven, M. (1991). Evaluation thesaurus (4th ed). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Shafritz, J. M., Koeppe, R. R, & Soper, E. W. (1988). The facts on file dictionary of education. New York: Facts on File.

Technology Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988, P.L. 100-407

Upcraft, M. L. (1984). Orienting students to college. New Directions for Student Services, No. 25. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Glossary

Words set in italics are defined elsewhere in the Glossary.

academic competencies. See BASIC ACADEMIC SKILLS.

academic preparatory academy. 1 : an equivalent high school education program that contains core academic content areas that include college preparatory curriculum. 2 : services provided by commercial tutoring companies prior to or during college.

academic skills. See BASIC ACADEMIC SKILLS.

academically underprepared student. 1 : a student assessed as having potential for college success when appropriate educational enrichment and support services are provided. 2 : a student who, while meeting college admissions requirements, is not yet fully prepared to succeed in one or more college-level courses. Usage Rule: Put people first followed by a descriptive phrase. Example:... a student academically under prepared in calculus (see APA, 2001, pp. 63-65, 69-70). Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL STUDENT and REMEDIAL STUDENT

Accelerated Learning Groups (ALGs). Developed at the University of Southern California by Dr. Sydney Stansbury (2001) in the 1990s, ALGs are one example of a course-based learning assistance program. Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING and COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE.

accelerated learning program. College students with academic weaknesses simultaneously receive academic enrichment and support as they are enrolled in college-level courses and keep pace with other students towards degree completion. This model is based on the Accelerated Schools Program used widely in elementary and secondary schools in the U.S. Support may be provided through one of several means: COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE, enrollment in a learning community that pairs a core curriculum content course and an appropriate developmental education course; faculty embed practice with study strategies within their college-level academic courses (Koski & Levin, 1998). Compare with COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE, DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAM, and REMEDIAL PROGRAM.

access education. 1 : targets HISTORICALLY UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENT POPULATIONS through a program of study to prepare them for postsecondary admission. 2 : a term used to describe programs in Europe that are comparable in some ways to U.S. DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION. Compare with ACADEMIC PREPARATORY ACADEMY and DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.

active learning. The process of having students engage in an activity that encourages them to reflect on ideas and how they are using them (Collins & O'Brien, 2003, p. 5)

active listening. Attending to the speech, body language, facial expressions, and implied meaning of a person's communications and reciprocation of the same to the sender (Collins & O'Brien, 2003, p. 5).

adjunct instructional programs (AIP). See COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE.

advance organizer. 1: short introductory text or graphic material presented to students prior to a learning experience that enables them to structure the knowledge, put it in perspective, and increase receptivity to new information. 2 : draws parallels between something the reader already knows about the new material; or restates the new material at a higher level of abstraction, generalizability, and inclusiveness (Harris & Hodges, 1981).

affective domain. Attitudes, values, and emotions (Dembo, 1994).

ancillary facilities. Institutional units which exist to provide support for all units across the institution.

assistive technology. Any equipment used to increase, maintain, or improve the fundamental capacities of individuals with disabilities (Technology Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988). Compare with INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY 

associating. 1 : the process of connecting a written symbol with its meaning referent, usually a spoken word, in beginning reading. 2 : the process of connecting what is presently being learned to prior knowledge or experience (Harris & Hodges, 1981).

attribution. An individual's perception of the causes of his or her own success or behavior (Dembo, 1994).

backwash. The desirable or undesirable effect a test of particular skill has on the acquisition of that skill (Kersteins, 1990).

basic academic skills. Activities such as calculating, reading, reasoning, speaking, and writing that enable people to communicate and learn; considered to be essential to learning across the curriculum, but not always specifically taught in the regular postsecondary academic curriculum.

behavioral change. A difference in performance or attitude that is observed and documented following an intervention.

cognitive domain. Knowledge and the skills of comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Dembo, 1994).

cognitive strategies. Behaviors and thoughts that influence the learning process so that information can be retrieved more efficiently from memory (Dembo, 1994).

collaborative learning. Activities in which students work together and learn from each other. These activities may be under supervision of an instructor or other students. The focus is often on developing mastery of the academic content material. Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING.

college-level. The level of skill attainment, knowledge, and reasoning ability associated with/required by courses of study designed to lead to a postsecondary degree.

college-level mathematics skills. Mathematics competency for meeting expectations of the student's academic program of study required by the college. Some academic degree programs require different and higher mathematics skills than others. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL MATHEMATICS COURSE and REMEDIAL MATHEMATICS COURSE.

college-level reader. A student who possesses the skills and strategies for comprehending college-level written materials.

college-level reading skills. 1 : Skills required to decode, comprehend, analyze, and criticize information contained in college-level textbooks, supplemental texts, fiction and nonfiction books, course handouts, and examinations. Inherent in college-level reading skills are rate, flexibility, fluency, and a broad vocabulary to support comprehension of the text. This does not necessarily include knowledge of specific content-area vocabulary. 2 : Reading competency for enrollment in a rigorous college-level core curriculum course. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL READING COURSE and REMEDIAL READING COURSE.

college-level students. Those students demonstrating possession of the necessary prerequisite skills, knowledge, and reasoning ability that suggest they are developmentally ready to pursue courses of study leading to a college degree.

college-level writing skills. 1 : skills required to convey information in writing at a college-level. Inherent in this level are skills in grammar, sentence structure, organization, voice, and a broad vocabulary to demonstrate understanding and articulate meaning. 2 : Writing competency for enrollment in a college-level composition course. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING COURSE, REMEDIAL ENGLISH COURSE, and WRITING PROCESS.

college students. Learners matriculated into a post-secondary institution.

community agencies. Publicly and privately sponsored organizations outside of institutions of higher education that can serve as resources for the institution and its students (e.g., counseling, employment agencies, and social services).

compensatory education. 1 : Educational activities that remediate a previous state of discrimination. The focus is on both the individual student and an enriched learning environment to replace the previous impoverished and diminished environment in secondary education. 2 : Sometimes the term is used to describe activities and services provided through civil rights legislation for students who are eligible for participation due to past discrimination of their ethnic, social, or economic group (e.g., TRIO programs).

comprehension monitoring. The cognitive process of actively evaluating and self-regulating one's comprehension while reading (a metacognitive skill).

concentration. 1 : ability to become absorbed in a task and continue in it despite distractions (Page & Thomas, 1980). 2 : the conscious and intensive focusing of attention on an object, task or problem (Eastridge & Price, 1969).

cooperative learning. In addition to activities in which students work together and learn from each other as in COLLABORATIVE LEARNING, they engage in activities that are more structured, planned, and purposeful. The six critical features of cooperative learning include: (1) positive interdependence among group participants; (2) individual accountability for involvement; (3) appropriate rationale and task purpose for the group; (4) structured student interactions with designated activities rather than free-form discussion; (5) instructor or expert peer facilitation; and (6) attention to development of social skills such as interpersonal communications and leadership development. Compare with COLLABORATIVE LEARNING.

course-based learning assistance (CLA). Those forms of group cooperative learning that accompany a specific course to serve as a supplement for that course. There are a variety of CLA approaches. These activities may occur outside of class or may be embedded within the course. Student participation may be voluntary or mandatory. Some CLA programs award academic credit for student participation. Examples of CLA with formal protocols for implementation include: Accelerated Learning Groups (USC Model), Emerging Scholars Program (UC-Berkeley Model), Peer-led Team Learning (CUNY Model), Structured Learning Assistance (Ferris State University Model), Supplemental Instruction (UMKC Model), and Video-Based Supplemental Instruction (UMKC Model). CLA can also be less formal and take the form of study cluster groups and group problem-solving sessions (Arendale, 2005). Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING and COLLABORATIVE LEARNING.

critical literacy. 1 : Skills to critically reflect on the political and social forces that affect a community or person's life so that action can be taken to overcome barriers and improve conditions that these forces have put in place (Collins & O'Brien, 2003, p. 83). 2 : Ability to reflect on, analyze, and evaluate implications of information for practice. Compare with LITERACY

critical pedagogy. An approach to teaching and learning that encourages the learners to reflect critically on issues of power and oppression in their society and on what might be done to change the current situation (Collins & O'Brien, 2003, p. 86).

critical reader. 1 : One who comprehends, questions, clarifies, and analyzes in order to reach objective, reasoned judgments. 2 : Being willing and able to objectively evaluate what one reads. 3 : Reaching reasoned judgments on the basis of the evidence presented rather than accepting or rejecting information based on emotion and anecdote (J. McGrath, personal communication, September 27, 2005).

critical reading. The process of understanding, questioning, and making reasoned judgments in reading; requires evaluating ideas, recognizing assumptions, identifying relationships in form and content, reading analytically, and distinguishing fact and opinion.

cultural differences. Behavioral and attitudinal traditions based on an individual's or a group's prior and current cultural experience and socialization.

cultural literacy. 1 : Awareness of facts, themes, ideas, and other information comprising the heritage of a given nation, culture or ethnic group. 2 : The cumulative cultural knowledge that a reader brings to the current reading exercise that influences him or her when questioning, evaluating, and associating the material.

cultural sensitivity. Acting in a manner that demonstrates respect for the background of all individuals and adapting the learning environment to different learning preferences that are influenced by cultural traits.

developmental. 1 : the expected sequence of learning. Any learner who is acquiring knowledge and skill is in this continuum stage of the education process. COMMENT'. The use of the term in education has its origins in psychology, which had taken it from medicine. Development is defined as the process of growth, unfolding, and activation. Thus, expected growth is developmental. 2 : Often used in counter distinction to ACCELERATED and/or REMEDIAL learning. Use of the term at the college level recognizes there is a gap between high school skills or prior educational experience and college skills that need to be mediated for some students. Compare with ACCELERATED LEARNING PROGRAMS and REMEDIAL.

developmental course. 1 : Any course organized according to the principles of cognitive and student development and designed to promote both affective and cognitive development. 2 : Any course designed to build upon existing skills to prepare students for college-level course work. Compare with REMEDIAL COURSE.

developmental education. 1 : A field of practice and research within higher education with a theoretical foundation in developmental psychology and learning theory. It promotes the cognitive and affective growth of all postsecondary learners, at all levels of the learning continuum. 2 : A sensitive and responsive approach to the individual differences and special needs among learners (NADE, 1995). Compare with LEARNING ASSISTANCE, REMEDIAL EDUCATION, and MULTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.

developmental education program. Commonly addresses academic underpreparedness, diagnostic assessment and placement, affective barriers to learning, and development of general and discipline-specific learning strategies (NADE, 1995). Compare with ACCELERATED LEARNING PROGRAM, LEARNING ASSISTANCE PROGRAM, and REMEDIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM.

developmental educator. 1 : An educational professional who works in a program designed to enhance the academic and personal growth of students who are underprepared for college-level academic tasks. 2 : An educational professional who employs the principles of cognitive and affective development in designing and delivering instruction.

developmental mathematics course. 1 : Precollegiate mathematics courses that are designed to prepare students for the study of college-level mathematics, as defined by entrance requirements of the institution. Levels of developmental mathematics courses vary from basic arithmetic through any prerequisite course(s) for calculus (Duranczyk, 2004). 2 : Instruction that may contain one or more of the following topics: arithmetic operations, math symbolism, geometry and measurement, functions, discrete math algorithms, probability and statistics, and deductive proofs. 3 : Specialized mathematics instruction for students who do not meet entry into a college-level mathematics course. Compare with COLLEGE-LEVEL MATHEMATICS SKILLS and REMEDIAL MATHEMATICS COURSE.

developmental profile. Description of an individual's academic and/or cognitive competencies.

developmental reading course. 1 : Instruction that builds upon students' existing reading skills and background knowledge to enable them to become proficient in processing and learning college-level reading material. 2 : College-level reading instruction that includes the reading and learning skills, and learning strategies needed to master college-level material efficiently and effectively. Compare with REMEDIAL READING COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL READING SKILLS.

developmental student. 1 : A student assessed as having potential for college success when appropriate educational enrichment and support services are provided. 2 : A student who, while meeting college admissions requirements, is not yet fully prepared to succeed in one or more introductory college-level courses. Usage Rule: Put people first followed by a descriptive phrase. Example:... a student with developmental issues in college algebra (see APA, 2001, pp. 63-65, 69-70). Compare with ACADEMICALLY UNDERPREPARED STUDENT and REMEDIAL STUDENT

developmental writing course. 1 : Instruction for those who have not yet mastered the basic composition skies necessary to write at the college-level. 2 : Specialized English instruction for students who do not meet entry requirements for a college-level writing course. Compare with REMEDIAL ENGLISH COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL WRITING SKILLS.

diagnosis. 1 : The process of determining students' specific strengths and weaknesses to create a prescription for treatment (Harris & Hodges, 1981). 2 : Planning of instruction based on the evaluation of the student's needs. 3 : The classification of people or things into established categories (Harris & Hodges, 1981).

direct instruction. 1 : The instructor facilitates the learning environment through presentation of content material (i.e., lecturing, explaining), demonstrations, and managing student activities (Ellis & Fours, 1990, p. 70). 2 : Based on behavior modification principles, learning activities are sequenced and managed by the instructor to develop progressively more complex skills and knowledge. Compare with FACILITATOR and STUDENT CENTERED LEARNING.

disability. 1 : A physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. 2 : A record of such impairments. 3 : Being regarded as having such impairments (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990).

disability services. The provision of accommodations and services by the institution to enable students with a professionally diagnosed disability to perform on an equal basis with other students in academic activities and assignment.

diverse students. Students from backgrounds that differ by race, class, gender, culture, ethnicity, home language, age, disability, and sexual identity. Compare with HISTORICALLY UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENT POPULATIONS.

early exit. A student's leaving a program, course, or activity before its scheduled end. Such leave usually is based on early mastery of a skill or skills that are documented through an assessment measure.

elaboration. 1 : Formation of a relationship between previously learned information and new, unfamiliar material by means of mental images or verbal extensions, such as inferences and analogies (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984). 2 : The process or result of expanding in detail or complexity a simpler object or idea. 3 : The extra processing one does that results in additional, related or redundant propositions with those serving as the memory for the material processed (Reder & Anderson, 1980).

emergency crisis management procedures. Established, step-by-step directions for dealing with extraordinary events (e.g., students in crisis, health emergencies, student discipline).

Emerging Scholars Program (ESP). Developed at the University of California-Berkeley by Dr. Uri Treisman in the 1980s. ESP is one example of a course-based learning assistance. Sometimes called the Math Workshop Model and the Treisman Model. Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING and COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE.

facilitating. Process of organizing and managing a highly participatory learning environment where learners are the primary generators of discussion, discovery, and inquiry about academic content. Compare with MENrlDRING and TUTORING.

facilitators. Persons who organize and manage a highly participatory learning environment in COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE programs. This role may employ students, non-student paraprofessionals, professional staff, and instructors. Compare with COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE and TUTORS.

first-year experience course. A class offered in the first academic term of a student's enrollment in college that explores important information and skills essential for success in both the academic and social dimensions of college life.

flexible reading. Strategies for varying reading rates based on the type of reading (e.g., skimming, scanning, studying), the purpose of reading, and the reader's familiarity with the content. Compare with SPEED READING.

graphic organizers. 1 : A visual map, outline, graph, comparison table, or chart that identifies the major concepts and relationships of ideas in reading or lecture material. 2 : A non-linear method for summarizing and visually representing important relationships among ideas in a text or a lecture.

higher-level thinking skills. Processing material at the cognitive levels of analysis, synthesis, or evaluation (Bloom, 1956).

historically-underrepresented student populations. Student groups that have not commonly enrolled at or been successful in postsecondary educational institutions in comparison with historical trends in college enrollment and representation in the general population of the United States. Compare with DIVERSE STUDENTS and STUDENTS OF COLOR.

human development. 1 : The total span of life cycle from birth to death with the notion that individuals are in a constant process of growth and change (Shafritz, Koeppe, & Soper, 1988). 2 : Changes in cognitive, affective, psychological, social, emotional, and physical domains across the human life span. May be viewed as age/stage related or on a continuum of skills and knowledge.

inclusion. Providing equal educational opportunity by co-creating learning communities in which unique needs and diverse capacities are recognized, understood, accepted, and valued. Compare with UNIVERSAL DESIGN and UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN.

independent learners. 1 : Ability to work autonomously or with others successfully. 2 : Engage in a wide range of learning tasks, apply appropriate learning strategies for the task, self-monitor comprehension level, and make adjustments in learning behaviors to meet the requirements of the learning task. Compare with INTERDEPENDENT LEARNERS and SELF-REGULATED LEARNING.

institutional educational program. An organized set of curricula and coursework designed to produce a particular result or set of results (Shafritz, Koeppe, & Soper, 1988).

instructional materials. Resources in various formats (e.g., printed, audio-visual, kinesthetic, computer-based) to be used by students or faculty members to improve academic competence for the intended learning outcome.

instructional technology. 1 : A field dedicated to the theory and practice of technological design, development, use, management, and evaluation of the process for learning. 2 : Technology use in classroom environment or via the Internet to provide an intended learning experience (Collins & O'Brien, 2003, pp. 181-182). Compare with ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY and MEDIA SERVICES.

interacting with text. 1 : Building meaning through predicting, questioning, evaluating, paraphrasing, summarizing, and analyzing. 2 : Attending for comprehension of written material.

interdependent learners. Able to work with other learners in a group due to possessing skills in interpersonal communication, analyzing learning tasks, and SELF-REGULATED LEARNING to monitor themselves and make adjustments individually and within the learning group. Compare with INDEPENDENT LEARNERS, SELF-REGULATED LEARNING, and COOPERATIVE LEARNING.

learning. Acquisition by individuals of skills, information, values, and attitudes (both intentionally and unintentionally), as well as demonstrated ability to apply or transfer to new situations.

learning assistance. Supportive activities, supplementary to the regular curriculum, that promotes the understanding, learning, and recall of new knowledge; remediation for prescribed entry and exit levels of academic proficiency; and the development of new academic and learning skills. Some activities include study skills instruction, TUTORING, COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE, reviews, study groups, special topic workshops, time management, exam preparation, and self-paced instruction. These services may be provided in a center that can be staffed with professionals, paraprofessionals, and/or peers. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, MULTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, and REMEDIAL EDUCATION.

learning assistance center. 1 : A designated physical location on campus that provides an organized, multifaceted approach to offering comprehensive academic enhancement activities outside of the traditional classroom setting to the entire college community. 2 : A centralized location wherein tutorial and study skills assistance is provided most commonly. The center generally provides support to a wide array of academic disciplines. It may sometimes be focused in one academic area (e.g., mathematics, writing). 3 : A place that offers help to any student experiencing academic difficulties. Assistance is usually noncredit, individualized, and can be remedial or developmental in nature. Compare with LEARNING ASSISTANCE PROGRAM and TEACHING/LEARNING CENTER

learning assistance program. 1 : A comprehensive approach to offering instruction and activities for college students who seek skill development throughout their academic career. Areas of assistance could include skill development in critical thinking, reading, writing, study skills, and study strategies; instruction, group study, or tutoring in academic content areas; graduate and professional school exam preparation; and personal development areas such as time management. Such activities may be accessed through drop-in tutoring or study groups, independent self-paced study, workshops, or courses (Materniak & Williams, 1987). 2 : A program that enables a student to develop the attitudes and skills required for successful achievement of academic goals. Services maybe offered at the remedial, developmental, supplemental, or enhancement level. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM, LEARNING ASSISTANCE CENTER, REMEDIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM, and TEACHING/ LEARNING CENTER.

learning characteristics. The way in which an individual receives and processes new information (Shafritz, Koeppe, & Soper, 1988). Compare with LEARNING STYLE.

learning communities. A curricular approach that enrolls a common cohort of students in a restructured learning environment that builds connections among students and curriculum. There are different models for accomplishing this: linked courses, learning clusters, first-year interest groups, federated learning communities, and coordinated studies (Gabelnick, et al., 1990).

learning skills. 1 : Methods that permit the student to achieve understanding of desired material. 2 : Communication, organizational, and study skills that can enhance learning.

learning style. 1 : Affective and cognitive processes and preferences governing an approach to the acquisition of knowledge by a learner. 2 : A preference for a particular instructional methodology or environment. 3 : Sometimes categorized along a continuum for auditory, kinesthetic, or visual learning modalities. Compare with LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS.

literacy. 1 : The ability to read. 2 : The ability to read, speak, write, and understand the expression of a language and to perform its arithmetic and linguistic operations. 3 : Competency in a technical field, as in computer literacy (Harris & Hodges, 1981). Compare with CRITICAL LITERACY

locus of control. Individual's perception of who or what is responsible for the outcome of events and behaviors that affect his or her life (Dembo, 1994).

long-term memory. 1 : Ability to recall and use learned information for a task after a long time period. 2 : Permanent stored information that is capable of retrieval through association with other information (Bushy & Andrews, 1980). Compare with SHORT-TERM MEMORY

lower-level thinking skills. Processing material at the cognitive levels of knowledge, comprehension, or application. COMMENT. These are mental processes at the bottom half of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom, 1956).

mapping. See GRAPHIC ORGANIZER.

media services. That unit of an educational institution that provides consultation, media, and equipment to instructors for the purpose of developing and utilizing supplemental materials in learning activities. Compare with INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

mentoring. A learning or counseling relationship where an experienced person assists one less experienced to develop skills and knowledge. This relationship often provides a learning and growth experience for both individuals. Compare with FACILITATING and TUTORING.

metacognition. 1 : Reflection, understanding, and knowing how one learns. 2 : The process of reflecting, understanding, and knowing how a person learns. Compare with METACOMPREHENSION.

metacomprehension. 1 : The awareness of and conscious control over one's own understanding or lack of it. 2 : The ability to analyze and monitor one's level of understanding or performance. Compare with METACOGNITION.

minorities. See DIVERSE STUDENTS and HISTORICALLY UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENT POPULATIONS.

motivation. 1 : Arousing or stimulating a person through intrinsic and extrinsic means to perform a task willingly and to complete it with sustained enthusiasm (Eastridge & Price, 1969). 2 : Considered broadly, the process of arousing, sustaining and regulating behaviors and thoughts. 3 : Designates the use of various devices such as the offering of rewards or an appeal to the desire to excel (Good & Thomas, 1945).

multicultural developmental education. 1 : Providing inclusive academic support programs and services, and welcoming learning environments for diverse students by recognizing students' unique social identities and how they contribute to the learning process. 2 : Centralizing issues of race, class, gender, culture, ethnicity, home language, age, disability, social identities, and sexual identity to increase effectiveness of learning assistance and development programs. 3 : Embedding multiculturalism in all aspects of developmental education curricula through the selection of texts and other media and the adoption of pedagogies that respect differing perspectives and enable students to acquire and demonstrate knowledge in multiple ways (Higbee, Lundell, & Duranczyk, 2003). Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, DIVERSE STUDENTS, LEARNING ASSISTANCE, MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION, and REMEDIAL EDUCATION.

multicultural education. 1 : Education that recognizes and values cultural diversity, develops respect for cultural diversity, and promotes social justice and equal opportunity for all. 2 : Policies and practices that recognize, accept, and affirm human differences and similarities in gender, race, disability, class, social identities, and sexual identity (Collins & O'Brien, 2003, p. 229).

networking. Purposeful collaboration of individuals with common interests and/or roles, orientation program. 1 : A program that introduces academic and social college adjustments as well as familiarization with the institutions' facilities, programs, traditions, and services. Such programs may vary considerably between institutions in their length, scope, timing, and content (Upcraft, 1984, p. 1). 2 : A meeting or series of meetings held at the beginning of one's employment to provide information and training related to job performance, responsibilities, and logistical matters. 3 : An introductory set of activities for providing information about an institution's mission, programs, and procedures to anyone new to the institution.

outreach activity. Any effort by an educational institution to provide education, guidance, or other services to those not currently served (e.g., high school students, parents) (Shafritz, Koeppe, & Soper, 1988).

paraphrase. 1 : An active strategy that requires a person to think about and understand what the author is communicating and expressing in the person's own words. 2 : A substantially different sentence structure and vocabulary than the original, often typical of a person's own writing style; a restatement of the thesis or main idea of the original (J. McGrath, personal communication, September 27, 2005). Compare with SUMMARY

Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL). Developed at the City University of New York in the 1990s, PLTL is one example of course-based learning assistance programs. Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING and COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE.

people of color. See HISTORICALLY-UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENT POPULATIONS.

placement. The assignment of a person to an appropriate course or educational program in accordance with his/her aims, capabilities, readiness, educational background, and/or aspirations. Placement can he based on previous experiences, scores on admissions or entrance tests, or tests specifically designed for placement purposes.

power test. A test of a particular skill having no time limits.

pre-reading. 1 : The cognitive process used by readers to gain an overview of the text and to determine how that text fits into their personal schema. 2 : A quick survey, prior to formal reading, focused on attention to the title, introductory and concluding paragraph, main divisions and subdivisions, parts set off by contrasting print, information on the author, thesis and general organization of the text, but without full comprehension (Eastridge & Price, 1969).

pre-writing. Early activities in the writing process: organizing the writing topic, gathering relevant information, focusing the topic, and producing a first draft of the manuscript. Compare with WRITING PROCESS.

reading process. 1 : An active, thinking process of understanding an author's ideas, connecting those ideas to what a person already knows, and then organizing all the ideas so that the person can remember and use them (J. McGrath, personal communication, September 27, 2005). 2 : The act of reading, involving primarily the recognition of printed symbols and the meaningful reaction of the reader to these symbols; such reaction may include the reader's interpretation, appraisal, and attitudinal responses as determined by his/her purposes and needs (Good & Thomas, 1945).

reading strategies. 1 : techniques which facilitate the construction of meaning from text by the reader. 2 : Effective techniques for abstracting comprehension from written message. This may include such strategies as clarifying purposes for reading, identifying important aspects of the message, monitoring comprehension, and recovering from interruptions (Brown, 1981). remedial education. 1 : A process that corrects a deficit in student behaviors and/or skills. Such an approach is narrowly focused on the academic content as opposed to DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, which focuses more broadly on the whole learner (Dejnozka & Kapel, 1991, pp. 478-479). 2 : Instruction designed to remove a student's deficiencies in one or more basic academic skills (i.e., math, reading, writing) to reach a level of proficiency achieved by most secondary school graduates. Additional instruction may be required, including DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, for the student to be prepared for the rigor of a college-level course. 3 : Academic content taught previously in middle or secondary school as opposed to DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, which focuses more often on skills and knowledge needed for college-level academic content material and skills. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL, DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION., LEARNING ASSISTANCE, and MULTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.

remedial education program. A group of courses and/or activities to assist learners to achieve secondary school-level basic skills in their identified academic deficit areas. Compare with ACCELERATED LEARNING PROGRAM, DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM, and LEARNING ASSISTANCE PROGRAM.

remedial English course. Instruction for those who have not yet mastered the basic sentence mechanics, grammar usage, and punctuation skills necessary to write at the college level. 2 : Specialized English instruction for students who do not meet entry into either a developmental or college-level writing course. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL WRITING SKILLS.

remedial mathematics course. 1 : Instruction for those who have not yet mastered the skills necessary for competency with mathematics at the college-level. These skills may include one or more of the following: arithmetic operations, math symbolism, geometry and measurement, functions, discrete math algorithms, probability and statistics, and deductive proofs. 2 : Specialized mathematics instruction for students who do not meet entry into a developmental mathematics course. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL MATHEMATICS COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL MATHEMATICS SKILLS.

remedial reading-course. 1 : Instruction for those who have not yet mastered the basic decoding and comprehension skills necessary to begin effectively reading college-level texts. 2 : Specialized reading instruction for students who do not meet entry or exit levels of a prescribed proficiency. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL READING COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL READING.

remedial student. 1 : A student assessed as having potential for college success after completing required academic improvement courses/programs due to significant underpreparation in one or more academic skill areas. 2 : A student who, as a condition of meeting provisional college admissions requirements, is not yet fully prepared to succeed in one or more introductory college-level courses. The student may have to successfully complete academic improvement courses/programs before he or she is allowed to enroll in a college-level course in the same academic area or perhaps be fully admitted to the postsecondary institution. Usage Rule: Put people first followed by a descriptive phrase. Example: ... a student with remedial issues in fundamentals of mathematics (see APA, 2001, pp. 63-65, 69-70). Compare with ACADEMICALLY UNDERPREPARED STUDENT and DEVELOPMENTAL STUDENT

review. Reexamination of material previously presented or studied (Good & Thomas, 1945).

scanning. Strategy that leads the reader to rapidly peruse text to find specific information (i.e., words, ideas) and to disregard any text that is not related to the focus of interest. Compare with SKIMMING.

schemata/schema. 1 : The framework for organizing new information and relating it to existing knowledge that the individual brings to the learning situation. 2 : The pattern, plan, design or system an individual is able to discern from the available information.

self-efficacy. The self-held belief of a person that he/she can successfully execute the behavior required to produce a particular behavior or outcome (Dembo, 1994).

short-term memory. Limited capacity memory of short duration which dissipates with time or is replaced by new information (Bushy & Andrews, 1980). Compare with LONG-TERM MEMORY

self-regulated learning. Learning in which the student is actively involved in motivating himself or herself and using appropriate learning strategies (Dembo, 1994).

skills(s). 1 : Behavior(s) that can be developed through instruction and practice. 2 : An activity that can be performed automatically (J. McGrath, personal communication, September 27, 2005). Compare with STRATEGY

skimming. 1 : A method of rapid reading in which the reader attempts to obtain the general idea of the passage rather than deeply reading the entire text (Eastridge & Price, 1969). 2 : A method of reading in which the reader attempts to ascertain the general meaning without attention to detail (Good & Thomas, 1945). Compare with SCANNING.

special populations. See HISTORICALLY-UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENT POPULATIONS.

specialized vocabulary. 1 : Words peculiar to a specific discipline, or more general words used in a particular way within a discipline. 2 : Names applied to concepts associated with a particular discipline or subject (e.g., chemical elements).

speed reading. Strategies for increasing speed while reading without interfering with comprehension. Compare with FLEXIBLE READING.

strategic learning. The selection and application by a student of strategies/procedures that are appropriate to the task.

strategy. 1 : A tool or technique consciously selected to complete a task accurately and effectively (J. McGrath, personal communication, September 27, 2005). 2 : This activity is internalized and flexible, not rigid. Compare with SKILL(S).

Structured Learning Assistance (SLA). Developed at Ferris State University (MI) in the 1990s, SLA is one example of course-based learning assistance programs. Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING and COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE.

student. Learner.

student-centered learning. Students are actively engaged, have more control over the topics of study, and the means to do so. Compare with DIRECT INSTRUCTION and FACILITATORS.

study group. See COLLABORATIVE LEARNING.

study habits. A person's routine of applying study skills or approaching a study task for learning (Harris & Hodges, 1981).

study reading. 1 : A process applied to the text by a student in order to learn the material. The process may include, but is not limited to, annotating the text, previewing the chapter, summarizing or outlining the main points, and paraphrasing and reciting the material. 2 : A student's usual way of getting meaning from what he or she reads. 3 : Reading for the specific purpose of absorbing and remembering information for which one will be held accountable.

study skills. Procedures to assist learners in the process of acquiring knowledge.

study strategies. Behaviors and procedures that, when thoughtfully and appropriately applied to learning tasks, improve the acquisition, understanding, and application of knowledge and skills. The learning behaviors include study skills such as time management, organizational skills, regular planned study sessions, effective concentration, and well-developed communication skills to send and receive information in an academic setting. Compare with COGNITIVE STRATEGIES and STUDY SKILLS.

studying. Activities directed to acquiring knowledge, developing skills, and remembering what has been learned.

summarize. 1 : The process of producing a condensed version of the original. 2 : Activity that begins with a paraphrase of the main ideas and details in the same order and with the same emphasis as the original. 3 : Activity used when a person needs to express the essence or gist of long narratives, such as a complete essay or book (J. McGrath, personal communication, September 27, 2005). Compare with PARAPHRASE.

Supplemental Instruction (SI). Developed at the University of the Missouri-Kansas City by Dr. Deanna Martin in the 1970s, SI is one example of course-based learning assistance programs. Unlike tutoring, which has a variety of expressions, SI has a specific set of protocols to follow. Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING and COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE.

support areas. Institutional services, other than regularly scheduled classes and labs, designed to assess and improve the academic and emotional well-being of students (Shafritz, Koeppe, & Soper, 1988).

survey. 1 : (noun) An overall examination of performance, as a reading survey (Harris & Hodges, 1981). 2 : (verb) To make a comprehensive overview, as survey a textbook or chapter (Harris & Hodges, 1981).

teaching/learning center. An organized program that provides comprehensive academic enhancement activities outside of the traditional classroom setting for students and professional development services for the instructional staff. Compare with LEARNING ASSISTANCE CENTER.

teaching/learning process. A planned program for which there are expected teaching and learning outcomes.

testwiseness. The ability to correctly answer test questions on some basis other than the knowledge which the questions were designed to measure (Ferrell, 1973).

text structures/theoretical patterns. 1 : Means employed by an author to develop and support the thesis or main ideas. 2 : The structure the author gives the information. Six common methods of organizational structure are examples, comparison and/or contrast, cause and effect, sequence or process, classification, and definition. In addition, the author may often combine two structures (J. McGrath, personal communication, September 27, 2005).

thinking skills. 1 : The basic intellectual tools used for the acquisition, processing, organization and application of knowledge. 2 : A series of strategies for improving content mastery.

transfer. 1 : Use of information gained in one domain to solve a problem encountered in a different domain. 2 : Ability to use skills and strategies acquired in a reading or study strategies class to understand the textbook and supplemental readings in a content area course (i.e., introductory core curriculum course).

tutoring. 1 : One-to-one or small group facilitated learning assistance that explains, clarifies, and exemplifies a topic and ultimately promotes independent learning. 2 : Individual or small group activities designed to supplement formalized instruction that may employ a simple or complex protocol of activities. 3 : An individualized instructional technique. Compare with FACILITATING and MENTORING.

tutors. Persons who facilitate learning through the process of TUTORING. This role may employ students, non-student paraprofessionals, professional staff, and instructors. Compare with FACILITATORS.

universal design. 1 ; Spaces are planned at the outset to meet the needs of all potential users. 2 : The design of the environment is usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design (Higbee, 2003). Compare with INCLUSION and UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN.

universal instructional design. Creation of an environment that is conducive to learning for all students with a lessened need for separate accommodations for a student with an academic weakness or a disability since the accommodations have been embedded into the learning situation and all students can benefit from them (Higbee, 2003). Compare with INCLUSION and UNIVERSAL DESIGN.

Video-Based Supplemental Instruction (VSI). Developed at the University of Missouri-Kansas City by Dr. Deanna Martin during the 1990s, VSI is one example of a course-based learning assistance. Compare with COOPERATIVE LEARNING and COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE.

visual imagery. The process, or result, of mentally picturing objects or events that are normally experienced directly (Harris & Hodges, 1981).

wait time. The period of time that an instructional staff member delays responding to a question to encourage a student response.

web-based. Information that is posted to the Internet World Wide Web.

writing process. A progression of activities that include prewriting that organizes and focuses the topic, initial drafting of ideas developed in prewriting, editing the draft text one or more times, producing a final version of the text that concludes with final proofreading, and correction of the text. Compare with COLLEGE-LEVEL WRITING SKILLS.

Glossary Contributors and Reviewers

The following individuals participated by providing some contributions and all provided reviewer comments about the document.

David Arendale

University of Minnesota 

[e-mail]

Dorie AuCoin

Bridgewater State College 

(MA)

[e-mail]

Leslie Boon

Harris Area Community

College, Gettysburg (PA)

[e-mail]

Susan Clark-Thayer

Suffolk University (MA)

sthayer@suffolk, edu

Jennifer Cole

The Sage Colleges (NY)

[e-mail]

Wilma Dulin

Yakima Valley Community College (WA)

[e-mail]

Irene Duranczyk

University of Minnesota

[e-mail]

Carol Eades

St. Catharine College (KY)

[e-mail]

Sabine Endicott

Tacoma Community College

(WA)

[e-mail]

Marjorie Ginsberg

William Paterson University 

(NJ)

[e-mail]

Jeanne Higbee

University of Minnesota

[e-mail]

Gene Kerstiens

Andragogy Associates (CA)

[e-mail]

Dana Lundell

Argosy University-Twin Cities

(MN)

[e-mail]

Terri Massie-Burrell

Towson University (MD)

[e-mail]

Howard Masuda

California State University, Los Angeles 

[e-mail]

Jane McGrath

Paradise Valley Community

College (AZ), Emerita 

[e-mail]

Ben Moulton

Utah Valley State College 

[e-mail]

Jane Neuberger

Syracuse University (NY)

[e-mail]

Donald Opitz

DePaul University (IL)

[e-mail]

Karen Patty-Graham

Southern Illinois University-Edwardsville

[e-mail]

Danielle Petersen

College of the Redwoods (CA)

[e-mail]

Gladys Shaw

University of Texas-El Paso

[e-mail]

Karin Winnard

Bryant University (RI)

[e-mail]

Pepe Zerda

Trident Technical College (SC)

[e-mail]

David Arendale, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Postsecondary Teaching and Learning within the College of Education and Human Development (CEHD) at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. In addition to teaching history and peer learning courses, Arendale investigates the history of postsecondary college access, learning assistance, and academic interventions that support improved student achievement and persistence. In 2000, Arendale was recognized by the American Council of Developmental Education Associations for induction as a Founding Fellow of the profession.