A gendered assessment of the brain drain.

1 Introduction

International migration is a diverse phenomenon and its impact on source and destination countries has attracted increased attention of policymakers, scientists and international agencies. The migration pressure has increased over the last years and is expected to intensify in the coming decades given the rising gap in wages and the differing demographic futures in developed and developing countries. Understanding and measuring the consequences for migrants, host countries' residents and those left behind is a major and difficult task. In particular, the impact of the brain drain on sending countries results from a complex combination of direct and feedback effects which are extremely difficult to quantify.

Due to the lack of harmonized data, the brain drain debate has, until recently, remained essentially theoretical (1). New data sets have been developed to assess the magnitude of the brain drain. In particular, Docquier and Marfouk (2006) (2) provided estimates of emigration stocks and rates by educational attainment for 195 source countries in 2000 and 174 countries in 1990. This data set gave rise to a couple of extensions as well as to a number of empirical studies on the determinants and consequences of the brain drain (3).

One important extension which has been strongly disregarded in the literature concerns the gender gap in international migration. In particular, little research has addressed the issue of female migration while a considerable strand of literature has focused attention on male migration. The share of women in international migration increased over the last decades. According to the United Nations, this share increased from 46.8 to 49.6 percent between 1960 and 2005. This evolution is mostly due to the rising representation of women in the immigration stock of the most advanced countries (from 48.9 to 52.2 percent) (4). It results from many factors such as the rise in women's educational attainment, the increased demand for women's labor in health care sectors and other services, or cultural and social changes in the attitude towards female migration in many source countries. Although family reunion programs admit many women in destination countries, women cannot be considered as passive companion migrants. The feminization of international migration raises specific economic issues related to the gendered determinants and consequences of migration. In particular, women's brain drain is likely to affect sending countries in a very peculiar way.

First of all, women's level of schooling is a fundamental ingredient for growth. Many studies demonstrate that women's education complements children's investments in school and has important effects on the human capital of future generations (see World Bank, 2007). Better educated mothers are superior teachers in the home, as demonstrated by Behrman et al. (1997) in the case of India. Hence, for a given investment in children, more educated mothers produce children with higher levels of human capital (Haveman and Wolfe 1995, Summers 1992). It can also be argued that schooled women contribute more income to the household, which may lead to more investment in child schooling and lower fertility rates. Another argument is that mothers with a high level of education have greater command of resources within the household (higher bargaining power), which they choose to allocate to children at higher levels than do men (see Quisumbing, 2003). Unsurprisingly, at the aggregate level, many studies have emphasized the role of female education in raising labor productivity and economic growth, suggesting that educational gender gaps are an impediment to economic development. This is the result obtained in Knowles et al. (2000) who use Barro and Lee's human capital indicators, or Coulombe and Tremblay (2006) who relied on the International Adult Literacy Survey to build an homogenized indicator of human capital. These studies suggest that investment in the human capital of women is crucial in countries where the gender gap in education is high (5). Societies that have a preference for not investing in girls or that lose a high proportion of skilled women through emigration may experience slower growth and reduced income.

Second, women's brain drain is a crucial issue as women's human capital is an even scarcer resource than men's human capital. At the world level, our estimates based on Barro and Lee (2000) and own calculations reveal that the percentage of women with post-secondary education rose from 7.3 to 9.8 percent between 1990 and 2000, while the male proportion rose from 10.9 to 12.5 percent. Similarly, the percentage of women with completed secondary education rose from 31.6 to 34.7 percent during the same period while the male proportion rose from 45.4 to 46.8 percent. Although the gender gap decreases over time, women are still lagging far behind men. In addition, the convergence movement is mainly perceptible in high-income countries where recent generations of women are as well or more educated than young men. In low-income countries, the gender gap is much greater (in 2000, only 2.4 percent of women had post-secondary education, against 5.5 percent for men) and the convergence is slow. Such a gender gap in education is amplified by the fact that women have lower participation rates than men. As women still face unequal access to tertiary education and skilled jobs in less developed countries, women's brain drain may generate higher relative losses than male brain drain.

Finally, as documented in Morrison, Schif and Sjoblom (2007), the feminization of migration is likely to affect future amounts of remittances, the size of diaspora externalities and the structure of activities in source countries. In this report, women are shown to send remittances over longer time periods, to send larger amounts to distant family members and have different impacts on household expenditures at origin. In a study on South Africa, Collinson (2003) shows that employed men remit 25 percent less than employed women. Regarding the determinants of migration, it is also argued that women and men do not respond to push and pull factors with the same intensity. Social networks are usually seen as more important for women who rely more strongly on relatives and friends for help, information, protection and guidance at destination. Without a gendered assessment of the brain drain, it is obviously impossible to conduct a complete analysis of these issues.

In this paper, we build on the DM06 data set, update the data using new sources, homogenize 1990 and 2000 concepts, and introduce the gender breakdown. We provide revised stocks and rates of emigration by level of schooling and gender. Our gross data reveal that the share of women in the skilled immigrant population increased in almost all OECD destination countries between 1990 and 2000. Consequently, for the vast majority of source regions, the growth rates of skilled female emigrants were always bigger than the growth rates obtained for unskilled women or skilled men. The evolution was particularly in the least developed countries. This feminization of the South-North brain drain mostly reflects gendered changes in the supply of education. We show that the cross-country correlation between emigration stocks of women and men is extremely high (about 97 percent), with women's numbers slightly below men's ones. However, these skilled female migrants are drawn from a much smaller population. Hence, in relative terms, the correlation in rates (88 percent) is much lower than in stocks. On average, women's brain drain is 17 percent above men's. This gender gap in skilled emigration rate is strongly correlated with the gender gap in educational attainment of the source population, reflecting unequal access to education. Although causality is hard to establish, it is very likely that equating men and women's educational attainment at origin would strongly reduce the gender gap in skilled migration.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides a brief survey of existing data sets on the brain drain. Section 3 then describes our methodology and presents the measure of emigrant stock in 1990 and 2000. Section 4 analyzes emigration rates. Section 5 summarizes the main results.

2 Background

The first serious effort to put together harmonized international data set on migration rates by education level was by Carrington and Detragiache (1998, 1999). They used US 1990 Census data and other OECD statistics on international migration to construct estimates of emigration rates at three education levels for 61 developing countries (including 24 African countries). Adams (2003) used the same technique to build estimates for 24 countries in 2000. Although Carrington and Detragiache's study initiated new debates on skilled migration, their estimates suffer from a number of limitations. The two most important ones were: i) they transposed the education structure of the US immigration to the immigration to the other OECD countries (transposition problem); ii) immigration to EU countries was estimated based on OECD statistics reporting the number of immigrants for the major emigration countries only, which led to underestimate immigration from small countries (under reporting problem).

Docquier and Marfouk (2006) generalized this work and provided a comprehensive data set on international skilled emigration to the OECD. The construction of the database relies on three steps: i) collection of Census and register information on the structure of immigration in all OECD countries (this solves the transposition and under reporting problems noted for Carrington Detragiache); (ii) summing up over source countries allows for evaluating the stock of immigrants from any given sending country to the OECD area by education level, and iii) comparing the educational structure of emigration to that of the population remaining at home, which allows for computing emigration rates by educational attainment in 1990 and 2000.

The DM06 data relies on assumptions, some of which were relaxed in a couple of extensions. Most of these extensions required additional assumptions but confirmed, to a large extent, the reliability of using DM06 data in descriptive analysis and empirical regressions.

* First, with only two points in time, DM06 does not give a precise picture of the long-run trends in international migration. To remedy this problem, Defoort (2006) computes skilled emigration stocks and rates from 1975 to 2000 (one observation every 5 years). She uses the same methodology as in DM06 but only focuses on the six major destination countries (the USA, Canada, Australia, Germany, the UK and France). Her study shows that, at the world level or at the level of developing countries as a whole, the average skilled migration rate has been extremely stable over the period. This suggests that the heterogeneity in the brain drain is mostly driven by the cross-section dimension, thus reinforcing the value of the DM06 cross-country data set based on a much more comprehensive set of destination countries.

* Second, counting all foreign born individuals as immigrants independently of their age at arrival, DM06 does not account for whether education has been acquired in the home or in the host country. Controlling for the country of training can be important when dealing with specific issues such as the fiscal cost of the brain drain. Beine, Docquier and Rapoport (2006) use immigrants' age of entry as a proxy for where education has been acquired and propose alternative measures of the brain drain by defining skilled immigrants as those who left their home country after age 22, 18 or 12. Data on age of entry are collected in a dozen countries. For OECD countries where such data cannot be obtained, Beine et al. estimate the age-of-entry structure using a gravity model. They find that corrected skilled emigration rates are highly correlated to those reported in DM06 (6).

* Third, general emigration rates may hide important occupational shortages (e.g. among engineers, teachers, physicians, nurses, IT specialists, etc). In poor countries shortages are particularly severe in the medical sector where the number of physicians per 1,000 inhabitants is extremely low. Clemens and Pettersson (2006), and Docquier and Bhargava (2006) provided data on the medical brain drain. The elasticity of medical brain drain rates (as measured by Docquier and Bhargava) to DM06 general rates amounts to 0.44 ([R.sup.2] = 0.39). Many observations are far from the overall trend. This suggests that the general brain drain may not reveal important aspects of occupational heterogeneity.

In this literature, the gender dimension has been largely disregarded. An exception is a paper by Dumont, Martin and Spielvogel (2007) which relies on a similar methodology than the one used here and analyzes emigration rates by gender and educational level from about 75 countries. Compared to this study, we use a slightly different definition of high-skill migration (including all post-secondary levels, even those with one year of US college), and rely on plausible estimates of the structure of the adult population in countries where human capital indicators are missing. We repeat the exercise for 1990 and 2000, thus shedding light on the recent feminization of the brain drain. We provide emigration stocks and rates for 195 countries in 1990 and 2000. Our data set can be used to capture the recent trend in women's skilled migration, as well as to analyze its causes and consequences for developing countries.

3 Emigration stocks by education level and gender

This section describes the methodology and data sources used to compute emigration stocks by educational attainment and gender for each source country in 1990 and 2000. Subsequently, we discuss the main insights from the data.

3.1 Methodology and data sources

It is well documented that statistics provided by source countries do not provide a realistic picture of emigration. When available, which is very rare, they are incomplete and imprecise. Whilst detailed immigration data are not easy to collect on an homogeneous basis, information on emigration can only be captured by aggregating consistent immigration data collected in receiving countries, where information about the birth country, gender and education of natives and immigrants is available from national population censuses and registers (or samples of them). More specifically, the receiving country j's census usually identifies individuals on the basis of age, gender g, country of birth i, and skill level s. Our method consists in collecting (census or registers) gender-disaggregated data from a large set of receiving countries, with the highest level of detail on birth countries and three levels of educational attainment: s = h for high-skilled, s = m for medium-skilled and s = l for low-skilled. Let [M.sup.i,j.sub.t,g,s] denote the stock of adults 25+ born in j, of gender g, skill s, living in country j at time t.

Table 1 describes our data sources. For countries where population registers (mainly Scandinavian countries) are used, data is based on the whole population. In countries where Census data are used, statistics are either based on the whole population (Australia, New Zealand, Belgium, etc.) or on a sample of it (e.g. 25 percent in France, etc.). In some cases, we combine comprehensive register data on the numbers of adult males and females, but use sample data to estimate the educational structure (the UK is estimated on 10 percent of the population; in Germany, the microcensus is based on 1 percent of the population). The education structure is sometimes given by region or groups of countries; we then assume a constant share within the region. In a couple of countries, we use household and labor force surveys to estimate the educational structure. Finally, we also use IPUMS International data set for Mexico, Spain and the United States.

Aggregating these numbers over destination countries j gives the stock of emigrants from country i: [M.sup.i.sub.t,g,s] = [[summation].sub.j] [M.sup.i,j.sub.t,g,s. This is the method used in DM06, without gender breakdown.

By focusing on census and register data, our methodology badly captures illegal immigration for which systematic statistics by education level and country of birth are not available (7), except in the USA. Demographic evidence indicates most US illegal residents are captured in the census. However, there is no accurate data about the educational structure of these illegal migrants. Hence, we probably underestimate the number of unskilled in the immigrant population, assuming that most illegal immigrants are uneducated. Nevertheless, this limitation should not significantly distort our estimates of the migration rate of highly-skilled workers.

In this paper, we rely on the same principles as in DM06 and turn our attention to the homogeneity and the comparability of the data. This induces a couple of methodological choices:

* In what follows, the term "source country" usually designates independent states. We distinguish 195 source countries: 191 UN member states, Holy See, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao and Palestinian Territories. We aggregate North and South Korea, West and East Germany and the Democratic Republic and the Republic of Yemen. We consider the same set of source countries in 1990 and 2000, although some of them had no legal existence in 1990 (before the secession of the Soviet block, former Yugoslavia, former Czechoslovakia and the German and Yemen reunifications) or became independent after January 1, 1990 (Eritrea, East-Timor, Namibia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Palau). In these cases, the 1990 estimated stock is obtained by multiplying the 1990 value for the pre-secession state by the 2000 country share in the stock of immigrants (the share is gender- and skill-specific).

* The set of receiving countries is restricted to OECD nations. We thus focus on the structure of South-North and North-North migration. Generally speaking, the skill level of immigrants in non-OECD countries is expected to be very low, except in a few countries such as South Africa (1.3 million immigrants in 2000), the six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (9.6 million immigrants in Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman and Qatar), some Eastern Asian countries (4 million immigrants in Hong-Kong and Singapore only). According to their census and survey data, about 17.5 percent of adult immigrants are tertiary educated in these countries (17 percent in Bahrain, 17.2 percent in Saudi Arabia, 14 percent in Kuwait, 18.7 percent in South Africa). Considering that children constitute about 25 percent of the immigration stock, we estimate the number of educated workers at 1.9 million in these countries. The number of educated immigrants in the rest of the world lies between 1 and 4 million (if the average proportion of educated immigrants among adults lies between 2.5 and 10 percent). This implies that focusing on OECD countries, we should capture a large fraction of the world-wide educated migration (about 90 percent). Nevertheless, we are aware that by disregarding non-OECD immigration countries, we probably underestimate the brain drain for several developing countries (such as Egypt, Sudan, Jordan, Yemen, Pakistan or Bangladesh in the neighborhood of the Gulf states, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, etc.). Incorporating data collected from selected non-OECD countries could refine the data set. To allow comparisons between 1990 and 2000, we consider the same 30 receiving countries in 1990 and 2000. Consequently, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Korea, Poland and Mexico are considered as receiving countries in 1990 despite the fact that they were not members of the OECD.

* We only consider the adult population aged 25 and over. This excludes students who temporarily emigrate to complete their education. In addition, as it will appear in the next section, it will allow us to compare the numbers of migrants with data on educational attainment in source countries. It is worth noticing that we have no systematic information on the age of entry. It is therefore impossible to distinguish between immigrants who were educated at the time of their arrival and those who acquired education after they settled in the receiving country; for example, Mexican-born individuals who arrived in the US at age 5 or 10 and graduated from US high-education institutions are counted as highly-skilled immigrants. As mentioned above, Beine et al (2007a) provided corrected measures by age of entry and found a very high correlation with the uncorrected numbers.

* Migration is defined on the basis of the country of birth rather than citizenship. Whilst citizenship characterizes the foreign population, the "foreign-born" concept better captures the decision to emigrate (8). Usually, the number of foreign-born is much higher than the number of foreign citizens (twice as large in countries such as Hungary, the Netherlands, and Sweden) (9). Another reason is that the concept of country of birth is time invariant (contrary to citizenship which changes with naturalization) and independent of the changes in policies regarding naturalization (10). The number of foreign-born can be obtained for a large majority of OECD countries although in a limited number of cases the national census only gives immigrants' citizenship (Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan and Korea). It is worth noting that the concept of foreign born is not fully homogeneous across OECD countries. In most receiving countries, foreign born are individual born abroad with foreign citizenship at birth. In a couple of countries, foreign born means "overseas-born", i.e. an individual simply born abroad.

* We distinguish three levels of education. Medium-skilled migrants are those with upper-secondary education completed. Low-skilled migrants are those with less than upper-secondary education, including those with lower-secondary and primary education or those who did not go to school. High-skilled migrants are those with post-secondary education (11). This assumption is compatible with Barro and Lee's human capital indicators (based on the 1976-ISCED classification). Some migrants did not report their education level. As in DM06, we classify these unknowns as low-skilled migrants (12). Educational categories are built on the basis of country specific information and are compatible with human capital indicators available for all sending countries. A mapping between the country educational classification is sometimes required to harmonize the data (13).

3.2 Women's share in OECD immigration

According to our estimates, the average share of women in the OECD immigrant population decreased from 51.6 to 50.6 percent between 1990 and 2000. Country-specific shares range from 41.8 in Iceland to 59.8 in Poland . It amounts to 53 percent in the United Kingdom, 52.3 in Canada, 51 in the United States, 49.5 in France and 46.2 in Germany. This share increased or stagnated in almost all countries over the 1990s. The only significant decreases are observed in Belgium (-3.8 percentage points) and Ireland (-2.8). Remarkable increases were observed in Austria (+11.3 percentage points), Portugal (+6.4) and, to a lower extent, in Turkey, Korea, Japan and Switzerland.

The average share of women in the OECD skilled immigrant population increased from 48.0 to 49.7 percent between 1990 and 2000. Country-specific shares range from 39.8 percent in Iceland to 56.4 in Poland. It amounts to 50.2 percent in the United Kingdom, 49.9 in the United States, 48.4 in Canada (the only country where there are more skilled women than skilled men), 46.6 in France and 45.2 in Germany. This share increased in almost all countries except in Belgium (-2.1) and Spain (1.4). Remarkable increases in female share were observed in the Czech Rep (+18.6 percentage points), Finland (+9.2) and Turkey (+9.1).

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3.3 Stocks by education level and gender

Tables 2 and 3 give the emigration stocks for 1990 and 2000, respectively . We distinguish total, low-skill and high-skill emigration stocks, the medium skilled can be easily obtained by substraction. Although the data set reveals specific information by country, we only report here data by country group. We consider income groups (following the World Bank classification), regional groups and groups of developing countries as defined in the UN classification, as well as a couple of groups of particular interest (OECD members, large countries with population above 75 million, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and Northern Africa and Islamic countries).

On the whole, we record 41.7 million immigrants aged 25+ and 58.2 million in 2000. The female share in adult OECD immigration was stable over the decade (50.6 percent in 1990 and 50.9 percent in 2000). These numbers are (for adults aged 25 and over) in line with the UNDP global numbers reported for the OECD countries (50.2 and 50.6 for these two years). However, the women's share varies across education level. The share in unskilled migration is above 51 percent (it decreased from 51.5 to 51.1 percent during the decade). The share in skilled migration is below 50 percent but strongly increased between 1990 and 2000 (from 46.7 to 49.3 percent).

The number of skilled women immigrants increased by 74 percent (from 5.8 to about 10.1 million). The rise was important for developing countries (both middle and low-income) where the number of skilled women emigrants was multiplied by 2.1 (+110 percent). Such an increase is in women skilled emigration is observed in every source region and is mainly due to the fact that women's rise in schooling level was more rapid than men's rise (supply effect). To a lesser extent, this also reflects the fact that skilled women are increasingly on the move. Indeed, as it will appear from the next section, the female skilled adult population increased by 67.9 percent at the world level and 83 percent in developing countries.

Figure 3 compares the average annual growth rates of women's total and skilled emigration stock and men's skilled emigration stock by region over the decade. In almost all regions the growth rate for skilled women is always bigger than for all women or skilled men. The evolution was particularly strong for migrants from the least developed countries, especially from low-income countries. The growth rate observed for Central and Southern Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa and Central America are particularly high.

Table 4 reports countries sending the largest stocks of migrants to the OECD. In absolute terms (number of educated emigrants), the largest countries are obviously strongly affected by the brain drain. The elasticity of emigration stock to population size amounts to 63.2 percent, revealing that small countries are relatively more affected that large countries. The five largest diasporas (all education categories) originate from Mexico (6.434 million), United Kingdom (2.990 million), Italy (2.337 million), Germany (2.299 million) and Turkey (1.942 million). Eight other countries have diaspora above 1 million: India, the Philippines, China, Vietnam, Portugal, Korea, Poland and Morocco. In most of these countries, the women's share varies from 48 to 52 percent. However, women's share is particularly high for the Philippines (62.2 percent), Germany (57.4), Korea and Poland (around 56 percent).

Focusing on skilled emigrants, the ranking unsurprisingly shows that rich countries with highly educated population have better educated diasporas. The elasticity of skilled emigration to population size at origin amounts to 65.7 percent. The largest skilled diasporas originate from the United Kingdom (1.487 million), the Philippines (1.111 million) and India (1.034 million). Germany and Mexico send more than 0.9 million skilled natives abroad. Four other countries have diasporas above 0.5 million: China, Korea, Canada and Vietnam. In these top-countries, the share of women among skilled migrants is large in Jamaica (62.1 percent), the Philippines (60.3) and other countries such as Japan, Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Colombia.

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4 Emigration rates

We count as migrants all adult (25 and over) foreign-born individuals living in an OECD country. However, it is obvious that the pressure exerted by 1,036,000 Indian skilled emigrants (4.3% of the educated total adult population) is less important than the pressure exerted by 15,696 skilled emigrants from Grenada (84% of the educated adult population). A more meaningful measure can then be obtained by comparing the emigration stocks to the total number of people born in the source country and belonging to the same gender and educational category. This method allows us to evaluate the pressure imposed on the labor market in the source country.

4.1 Methodology and data sources

In the spirit of Carrington and Detragiache (1998), Adams (2003), Docquier and Marfouk (2006) or Dumont and Lemaitre (2006), our second step consists in calculating the brain drain as a proportion of the total educated population born in the source country. Although our analysis is based on stocks (rather than flows), we will refer to these proportions as emigration rates. Denoting [N.sup.j.sub.t,g,s] as the stock of individuals aged 25+, of skill s, gender g, living in source country i, at time t, we define the emigration rates as

[m.sup.i.sub.t,g,s] = [M.sup.i.sub.t,g,s]/[N.sup.i.sub.t,g,s] + [M.sup.i.sub.t,g,s]

In particular, [m.sup.i.sub.t,g,h] can be used as a proxy of the brain drain in the source country i.

This step requires using data on the size and the skill and gender structure of the adult population in the source countries. Population data by age are provided by the United Nations (14). We focus on the population aged 25 and more. Data are missing for a couple of countries but can be estimated using the CIA world factbook (15). Population data are split across educational group using international human capital indicators. Several sources based on attainment and/or enrollment variables can be found in the literature. As in Docquier and Marfouk (2006), human capital indicators are taken from De La Fuente and Domenech (2002) for OECD countries and from Barro and Lee (2001) for non-OECD countries. For countries where Barro and Lee measures are missing, we predict the proportion of educated using Cohen-Soto's measures (see Cohen and Soto, 2007). In the remaining countries where both Barro-Lee and Cohen-Soto data are missing (about 70 countries in 2000), we transpose the skill sharing of the neighboring country with the closest enrolment rate in secondary/tertiary education, the closest gender gap in enrollment rates and/or the closed GDP per capita. This method gives good approximations of the brain drain rate, broadly consistent with anecdotal evidence.

Tables 5 and 6 give the structure of the adult population (25+) by country group and region of origin.

The world adult population increased from 2.559 to 3.180 billion people between 1990 and 2000 (+24.3 percent). This global growth rate hides important changes across education categories. While the unskilled population increased by 19.7 percent, the skilled population rose by 52.5 percent. Consequently, the proportion of post-secondary educated workers in the world adult population increased from 9.1 to 11.1 percent over the period. Although women still face unequal access to education in many countries, is worth noticing that women's share in the skilled adult population increased from 40.4 to 44.5 percent (their share in the unskilled population remains above 55 percent). Our data reveal that gender gaps in human capital are strongly linked to the level of economic development. The share of women in the skilled population is still very low in low-income countries (30.3 percent) and in the least developed countries (28.5 percent). The educational achievement of women is particularly worrisome in Western Africa (13.3 percent) and Northern Africa (14.7 percent). Figure 4 compares the average annual growth rates of women's total/skilled and men's skilled adult population by region over the decade.

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It comes out that the highest growth rates were observed in the poorest regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, Pacific Islands and Southern Asia. The level of schooling of the adult population also increased significantly in Northern Africa. The change in the intensity of the brain drain will then result from the comparison of the growth rate of skilled emigrants with skilled residents/natives. In many African countries (except in Southern and Northern Africa) and in Central America and Southern Asia, the growth rate of the stock of skilled female emigrants exceeded the growth rate of the skilled female population. The brain drain increases significantly in these regions. The opposite movement was observed in Southern and Northern Africa, or in Pacific Islands.

4.2 Emigration rates by education level and gender

Tables 7 and 8 show the emigration rates of unskilled and skilled workers, as well as global emigration rates by country groups and region of origin in 1990 and 2000. The reported index gives the female/male ratio in emigration rates by education level. Our cross-country results are very similar to those described in Docquier and Marfouk (2006). The correlation between the old and updated skilled emigration rates in 2000 is 94 percent. Skilled emigration rates are high in small and poor countries. Small developing islands of the Caribbean (47.2 percent) and the Pacific (63.1 percent) are particularly affected.

At the world level, women and men exhibit almost the same total emigration rates (1.6 percent in 1990 and 1.8 in 2000). Women's emigration rates are, however, lower than men's in the less developed countries, especially in Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa. On the contrary, skilled emigration rates are more pronounced among women. In 2000, the average (weighted) female/male ratio of brain drain amounted to 1.20. Huge ratios were observed in regions where women have a poor access to education such as Central Africa (2.225), Eastern Asia (2.030), Southern Africa (1.914) and Western Africa (1.842).

Between 1990 and 2000, and despite the rise in women's level of schooling, men's and women's skilled emigration rates slightly increased. Although the gender ratio of skilled migration rates decreased at the world level and in most regions, it rose in some developing regions such as Central and Western Africa.

Table 9 depicts the situation of the 30 most affected countries in 2000 regarding skilled migration rates. The right panel is based on the full sample. Small islands are the most affected. The emigration rate exceeds 80 percent in nations such as Guyana, Jamaica, St. Vincent, Grenada, Haiti, Cape Verde and Palau. Only three of these top-30 countries have a population above 4 million. On the right panel, we eliminate small countries and focus on countries with more than 4 million inhabitants. About one-third of the most affected countries are located in Sub-Saharan Africa and 7 are Central American or Caribbean countries. The brain drain exceed 30 percent in nine countries, including five Sub-Saharan African ones.

Regarding gender disparities, Figure 5 and 6 compares stock and rates of skilled migration by gender. Figure 5 shows that the correlation in stocks is extremely high (97 percent). On average, the number of skilled female migrants is lower than the number of skilled men. Figure 6 reveals that the correlation is lower in rates (88 percent); women's rate is on average 17 percent above men's. However, the female/male ratio in emigration rates varies strongly across countries. As shown on Table 10, it ranges from 0.522 in Bhutan to 4.378 in Nigeria. Countries where women are disproportionately affected are Nigeria, Cameroon, Sao Tome and Principe, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Guinea. On the other hand, men are over-represented in Bhutan, Lesotho, Cambodia, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Botswana. This gender gap in skilled emigration rate is strongly correlated with the gender gap in educational attainment of residents. The gender gap in migration is especially strong in countries where women have little access to education. A simple regression of the log of the female/male ratio in skilled emigration rates on the log of the female/male ratio in post-secondary educated adult population gives an elasticity of -50 percent ([R.sup.2] = .54) and an intercept which is not significantly different from zero. Hence, equating men and women's educational attainment would strongly reduce the gender gap in skilled migration. It is also worth noticing that the correlation between the gender gap in skilled migration and variables such as the UN gender empowerment measure or the proportions of seats held by women in the parliament is almost equal to zero.

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5 Conclusion

In this paper, we build on the DM06 data set, update the data using new sources, homogenize 1990 and 2000 concepts, and introduce the gender breakdown. We provide revised stocks and rates of emigration by level of schooling and gender. We repeat the exercise for 1990 and 2000, thus shedding light on the recent feminization of the brain drain. We provide emigration stocks and rates for 195 countries in 1990 and 2000. Although our data set deserves some extensions (e.g. adding points in time and accounting for migration to non OECD destination countries), it can be used to capture the recent trend in women's brain drain, as well as to analyze its causes and consequences for developing countries.

Our gross data reveal that the share of women in the skilled immigrant population increased in almost all OECD destination countries between 1990 and 2000. Consequently, for the vast majority of source regions, the growth rates of skilled women emigrants were always bigger than the growth rates obtained for unskilled women or skilled men. This evolution particularly occurs in the least developed countries. This feminization of the South-North brain drain mostly reflects gendered changes in the supply of education. The cross-country correlation between emigration stocks of women and men is extremely high (about 97 percent), with women's numbers slightly below men's ones. However, these women skilled migrants are drawn from a much smaller population. Hence, in relative terms, the cross-country correlation in rates (88 percent) is much lower than in stocks. On average, women's brain drain is 17 percent above men's. This gender gap in skilled emigration rate is strongly correlated with the gender gap in the educational attainment of adult populations, reflecting unequal access to education in many source countries. Equating men and women's educational attainment at origin would almost strongly reduce the gender gap in skilled migration.

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(1) See Commander et al. (2004) or Docquier and Rapoport (2007) for literature surveys.

(2) Henceforth, DM06.

(3) See Docquier et al. (2007), Beine et al. (2007b), Cecchi et al. (2007), Krueger and Rapoport (2006), Nimii and Ozden (2006), Javorcik et al. (2006), Grogger and Hanson (2007), Easterly and Nyarko (2005), etc.

(4) In developing countries, the share of women has been relatively stable over time.

(5) In the same vein, Klasen (1999) or Dollar and Gatti (1999) demonstrated that gender inequality acts as a significant constraint on growth in cross-country regressions, a result confirmed by Blackden et al. (2006) in the case of sub-Saharn Africa.

(6) Regressing corrected rates on uncorrected rates gives [R.sup.2] of 0.9775, 0.9895 and 0.9966 for J=22,18,12.

(7) Hatton and Williamson (2002) estimate that illegal immigrants residing in OECD countries represent 10 to 15 percent of the total stock.

(8) In some receiving countries such as Germany, immigrants' children (i.e. the second generation) usually keep their foreign citizenship.

(9) By contrast, in other OECD countries with a restricted access to nationality (such as Japan, Korea, and Switzerland), the foreign population is important (about 20 percent in Switzerland).

(10) The OECD statistics report that 14.4 million foreign born individuals were naturalized between 1991 and 2000. Countries with a particularly high number of acquisitions of citizenship are the US (5.6 million), Germany (2.2 million), Canada (1.6 million), and Australia and France (1.1 million).

(11) In the US case, this includes those with one year of college

(12) Country specific data by occupation reveal that the occupational structure of those with unknown education is very similar to the structure of low-skilled workers (and strongly different from that of high-skilled workers). See Debuisson et al. (2004) on Belgium data.

(13) For example, Australian data mix information about the highest degree and the number of years of schooling.

(14) See http://esa.un.org/unpp.

(15) See http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook.

Frederic Docquier (a), B. Lindsay Lowell (b) and Abdeslam Marfouk (c)

(a) National Fund for Scientific Research, IRES, Cath. Univ. of Louvain and World Bank (b) ISIM, Georgetown University (c) University of Brussels (ULB)

Table 1. Data sources

Receiving country       Definition

Australia              Foreign Born
Austria                Foreign Born
Belgium                Foreign Born
Canada                 Foreign Born
Czech Rep              Foreign Born
Denmark                Foreign Born
Finland                Foreign Born
France                 Foreign Born
Germany              Foreign citizens
Greece                 Foreign Born
Hungary              Foreign citizens
Iceland                Foreign Born
Ireland                Foreign Born
Italy                Foreign citizens
Japan                Foreign citizens
Korea                Foreign citizens
Luxemburg              Foreign Born
Mexico                 Foreign Born
Netherland             Foreign Born
New Zealand            Foreign Born
Norway                 Foreign Born
Poland                 Foreign Born
Portugal               Foreign Born
Slovak Rep             Foreign Born
Spain                  Foreign Born
Sweden                 Foreign Born
Switzerland            Foreign Born
Turkey                 Foreign Born
United Kingdom         Foreign Born
United States          Foreign Born

Receiving country                       1990

Australia                 Australian Bureau of Statistics
Austria                          Statistik Austria
Belgium                  Institut National de Statistiques
Canada                           Statistics Canada
Czech Rep                         Estimates (a,c)
Denmark                          Statistics Denmark
Finland                          Statistics Finland
France                                 INSEE
Germany               Microsensus + Federal Statistical Office
Greece                            Estimates (a,c)
Hungary                           Estimates (a,c)
Iceland                    Statistics Iceland + Estimates
Ireland                  Central Statistics Office Ireland
Italy                             Estimates (a,c)
Japan                             Estimates (b,c)
Korea                             Estimates (b,c)
Luxemburg                         STATEC Luxemburg
Mexico                          IPUMS-International
Netherland             Statistics Netherlands + Estimates (c)
New Zealand                    Statistics New Zealand
Norway                           Statistics Norway
Poland                            Estimates (a,c)
Portugal                 Instituto Nacional de Estatistica
Slovak Rep           Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic
Spain                             Estimates (b,c)
Sweden                           Statistics Sweden
Switzerland                       Swiss Statistics
Turkey                     Turkish Statistical Institute
United Kingdom             Office for National Statistics
United States                 Bureau of Census + IPUMS

Receiving country                       2000

Australia                 Australian Bureau of Statistics
Austria                          Statistik Austria
Belgium                  Institut National de Statistiques
Canada                           Statistics Canada
Czech Rep                     Czech Statistical Office
Denmark                          Statistics Denmark
Finland                          Statistics Finland
France                                 INSEE
Germany               Microsensus + Federal Statistical Office
Greece                 National Statistical Service of Greece
Hungary                         IPUMS-International
Iceland                  Statistics Iceland + Estimates (c)
Ireland                  Central Statistics Office Ireland
Italy                     Istituto Nazionale di Statistica
Japan                     Statistics Japan + Estimates (c)
Korea                            Statistics Korea +
Luxemburg                         STATEC Luxemburg
Mexico                          IPUMS-International
Netherland             Statistics Netherlands + Estimates (c)
New Zealand                    Statistics New Zealand
Norway                           Statistics Norway
Poland                           Poland Statistics
Portugal                 Instituto Nacional de Estatistica
Slovak Rep           Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic
Spain                           IPUMS-International
Sweden                           Statistics Sweden
Switzerland                       Swiss Statistics
Turkey                     Turkish Statistical Institute
United Kingdom             Office for National Statistics
United States                 Bureau of Census + IPUMS

(a) Immigration stocks are estimated using the SOPEMIdata set by
country of citizenship (rescaled using theforeign-born/foreign
citizens ratio in 2000)

(b) Immigration stocks are estimated using the United Nations
Population Division data set

(c) Education levels are estimated using household survey or the
average change in education attainment observed in other OECD
countries

Table 2. Stock of emigrants by education and gender in 1990 (in
thousands)

                                               Total migration
                                            (All education levels)

                                        Both     Men    Women     %

World (a)                               41705   20615   21090   50.6%

World Bank Income Classification (b)

High-income countries                   18046   8496    9550    52.9%
Upper-Middle-income countries           9125    4717    4408    48.3%
Lower-Middle-income countries           9843    4898    4945    50.2%
Low-income countries                    3507    1915    1592    45.4%

United Nations Classification (c)

Least Developed Countries               1354     748     606    44.8%
Landlocked Developing countries          783     420     362    46.3%
Small Island Developing countries       2643    1231    1411    53.4%

United Nations Classification (d)

Africa                                  2837    1676    1162    40.9%
  Eastern Africa                         516     268     248    48.0%
  Central Africa                         103     60      43     41.6%
  Northern Africa                       1671    1021     650    38.9%
  Southern Africa                        135     66      70     51.3%
  Western Africa                         412     261     151    36.7%
Americas                                8439    4080    4359    51.7%
  Caribbean                             1954     905    1050    53.7%
  Central America                       3486    1826    1660    47.6%
  South America                         1574     723     851    54.1%
  North America                         1424     625     798    56.1%
Asia                                    9402    4737    4664    49.6%
  Central Asia                           35      16      19     53.7%
  Eastern Asia                          2645    1220    1425    53.9%
  Southern Asia                         1961    1102     859    43.8%
  South-Eastern Asia                    2577    1172    1405    54.5%
  Western Asia                          2184    1227     957    43.8%
Europe                                  19318   9281    10038   52.0%
  Eastern Europe                        3615    1699    1917    53.0%
  Northern Europe                       4513    2072    2441    54.1%
  Southern Europe                       6948    3663    3284    47.3%
  Western Europe                        4242    1846    2395    56.5%
Oceania                                  524     252     273    52.0%
  Australia and New Zealand              383     184     199    52.0%
  Others Oceania                         141     68      73     51.9%

Groups of interest

OECD members                            22490   10886   11603   51.6%
Large countries (>75M)                  10766   5220    5546    51.5%
Sub-Saharan Africa                      1166     655     512    43.9%
LAC countries (e)                       7015    3454    3561    50.8%
MENA countries (f)                      2751    1652    1099    40.0%
Islamic countries (g)                   5845    3374    2471    42.3%

                                             Unskilled migration
                                            (Less than secondary)

                                        Both     Men    Women     %

World (a)                               20414   9891    10523   51.5%

World Bank Income Classification (b)

High-income countries                   7991    3680    4310    53.9%
Upper-Middle-income countries           5433    2766    2667    49.1%
Lower-Middle-income countries           4753    2344    2409    50.7%
Low-income countries                    1565     772     793    50.7%

United Nations Classification (c)

Least Developed Countries                714     364     350    49.0%
Landlocked Developing countries          373     191     182    48.7%
Small Island Developing countries       1149     529     620    54.0%

United Nations Classification (d)

Africa                                  1717     994     723    42.1%
  Eastern Africa                         212     97      115    54.2%
  Central Africa                         42      22      20     47.7%
  Northern Africa                       1226     737     489    39.9%
  Southern Africa                        30      12      17     58.4%
  Western Africa                         208     126     82     39.4%
Americas                                4151    2048    2103    50.7%
  Caribbean                              839     389     450    53.7%
  Central America                       2412    1273    1139    47.2%
  South America                          492     211     281    57.1%
  North America                          408     176     233    57.0%
Asia                                    3956    1894    2062    52.1%
  Central Asia                           19       9      10     51.8%
  Eastern Asia                           789     327     462    58.5%
  Southern Asia                          732     370     362    49.5%
  South-Eastern Asia                     959     406     553    57.6%
  Western Asia                          1457     782     675    46.3%
Europe                                  9788    4567    5221    53.3%
  Eastern Europe                        1895     830    1065    56.2%
  Northern Europe                       1513     663     850    56.2%
  Southern Europe                       4763    2427    2336    49.0%
  Western Europe                        1617     647     970    60.0%
Oceania                                  129     59      71     54.6%
  Australia and New Zealand              75      34      41     55.1%
  Others Oceania                         54      25      29     53.8%

Groups of interest

OECD members                            11513   5537    5975    51.9%
Large countries (>75M)                  4953    2366    2588    52.2%
Sub-Saharan Africa                       491     257     234    47.7%
LAC countries (e)                       3743    1873    1870    50.0%
MENA countries (f)                      1600     930     671    41.9%
Islamic countries (g)                   3624    2027    1597    44.1%

                                              Skilled migration
                                               (post-secondary)

                                        Both     Men    Women     %

World (a)                               12501   6668    5833    46.7%

World Bank Income Classification (b)

High-income countries                   5749    2952    2797    48.7%
Upper-Middle-income countries           2027    1114     913    45.0%
Lower-Middle-income countries           3144    1639    1505    47.9%
Low-income countries                    1317     822     495    37.6%

United Nations Classification (c)

Least Developed Countries                412     258     153    37.2%
Landlocked Developing countries          264     152     112    42.3%
Small Island Developing countries        918     448     471    51.2%

United Nations Classification (d)

Africa                                   724     464     260    35.9%
  Eastern Africa                         204     123     81     39.6%
  Central Africa                         38      25      13     34.0%
  Northern Africa                        259     173     86     33.4%
  Southern Africa                        79      43      36     45.8%
  Western Africa                         143     100     44     30.4%
Americas                                2641    1302    1340    50.7%
  Caribbean                              693     331     362    52.3%
  Central America                        604     321     283    46.8%
  South America                          628     315     313    49.8%
  North America                          717     335     382    53.3%
Asia                                    3781    2067    1714    45.3%
  Central Asia                            8       4       4     54.2%
  Eastern Asia                          1282     661     621    48.4%
  Southern Asia                          853     540     312    36.6%
  South-Eastern Asia                    1191     575     616    51.7%
  Western Asia                           447     287     160    35.9%
Europe                                  4869    2581    2288    47.0%
  Eastern Europe                         867     469     398    45.9%
  Northern Europe                       1564     796     767    49.1%
  Southern Europe                        965     572     393    40.8%
  Western Europe                        1473     744     729    49.5%
Oceania                                  221     114     107    48.5%
  Australia and New Zealand              166     85      81     48.9%
  Others Oceania                         54      29      26     47.5%

Groups of interest

OECD members                            6066    3157    2909    48.0%
Large countries (>75M)                  3782    1964    1818    48.1%
Sub-Saharan Africa                       465     291     174    37.4%
LAC countries (e)                       1925     967     958    49.8%
MENA countries (f)                       748     495     253    33.8%
Islamic countries (g)                   1309     840     469    35.8%

(a) In the World total, we include individuals with unknown origin
country.

(b) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/O,,
contentMDK:20420458~menuPK:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:
64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html

(b) http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/lldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm

(d) http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm

(e) LAC @ Central America A South America A The Caribbean;
Sub-Saharan Africa @ Africa--Northern Africa

(f) http://web.worldbank.org/SITE/EXTE/AL/CO/NTRIES/MENAEXT/0,,
menuPK:247606~pagePK:146732~piPK:146828~theSitePK:256299,00.html

(g) http://www.islamic-world.net/countries/index.htm

Table 3. Stock of emigrants by education and gender in 2000
(in thousands)

                                               Total migration
                                            (All education levels)

                                        Both     Men    Women     %

World (a)                               58246   28623   29623   50.9%

World Bank Income Classification (b)

High-income countries                   19717   9302    10415   52.8%
Upper-Middle-income countries           15339   7858    7482    48.8%
Lower-Middle-income countries           15505   7467    8037    51.8%
Low-income countries                    6445    3381    3064    47.5%

United Nations Classification (c)

Least Developed Countries               2364    1237    1127    47.7%
Landlocked Developing countries         1333     681     652    48.9%
Small Island Developing countries       4123    1874    2249    54.6%

United Nations Classification (d)

Africa                                  4352    2434    1918    44.1%
  Eastern Africa                         812     401     411    50.6%
  Central Africa                         214     115     99     46.4%
  Northern Africa                       2252    1326     925    41.1%
  Southern Africa                        272     130     142    52.1%
  Western Africa                         803     462     341    42.5%
Americas                                15493   7667    7826    50.5%
  Caribbean                             3010    1347    1663    55.3%
  Central America                       8050    4301    3749    46.6%
  South America                         2899    1322    1577    54.4%
  North America                         1534     697     837    54.6%
Asia                                    15198   7405    7794    51.3%
  Central Asia                           82      37      46     55.7%
  Eastern Asia                          4123    1845    2278    55.3%
  Southern Asia                         3472    1896    1575    45.4%
  South-Eastern Asia                    4354    1889    2464    56.6%
  Western Asia                          3168    1737    1431    45.2%
Europe                                  21170   10120   11049   52.2%
  Eastern Europe                        4436    1990    2445    55.1%
  Northern Europe                       4645    2172    2474    53.2%
  Southern Europe                       7494    3905    3589    47.9%
  Western Europe                        4595    2053    2542    55.3%
Oceania                                  791     382     410    51.8%
  Australia and New Zealand              564     274     290    51.4%
  Others Oceania                         228     108     120    52.6%

Groups of interest

OECD members                            28048   13832   14215   50.7%
Large countries (>75M)                  18597   9138    9459    50.9%
Sub-Saharan Africa                      2101    1108     993    47.3%
LAC countries (e)                       13960   6971    6989    50.1%
MENA countries (f)                      3823    2213    1610    42.1%
Islamic countries (g)                   8624    4813    3811    44.2%

                                             Unskilled migration
                                            (Less than secondary)

                                        Both     Men    Women     %

World (a)                               25068   12248   12820   51.1%

World Bank Income Classification (b)

High-income countries                   6936    3219    3717    53.6%
Upper-Middle-income countries           8572    4446    4126    48.1%
Lower-Middle-income countries           6432    3110    3322    51.6%
Low-income countries                    2290    1069    1220    53.3%

United Nations Classification (c)

Least Developed Countries               1049     507     542    51.7%
Landlocked Developing countries          511     248     264    51.6%
Small Island Developing countries       1598     730     868    54.3%

United Nations Classification (d)

Africa                                  2136    1168     967    45.3%
  Eastern Africa                         234     98      136    58.2%
  Central Africa                         88      41      47     53.3%
  Northern Africa                       1464     839     625    42.7%
  Southern Africa                        32      14      19     57.7%
  Western Africa                         318     177     141    44.2%
Americas                                7599    3916    3682    48.5%
  Caribbean                             1155     529     626    54.2%
  Central America                       5344    2899    2445    45.8%
  South America                          818     363     455    55.6%
  North America                          282     126     156    55.4%
Asia                                    5435    2525    2910    53.5%
  Central Asia                           26      12      14     52.7%
  Eastern Asia                          1046     435     611    58.4%
  Southern Asia                         1054     513     541    51.3%
  South-Eastern Asia                    1347     538     809    60.0%
  Western Asia                          1962    1026     936    47.7%
Europe                                  8901    4159    4742    53.3%
  Eastern Europe                        1687     712     975    57.8%
  Northern Europe                       1130     494     636    56.3%
  Southern Europe                       4682    2374    2308    49.3%
  Western Europe                        1402     579     823    58.7%
Oceania                                  159     76      83     52.3%
  Australia and New Zealand              80      40      40     50.5%
  Others Oceania                         79      36      43     54.2%

Groups of interest

OECD members                            13187   6594    6593    50.0%
Large countries (>75M)                  7974    3963    4011    50.3%
Sub-Saharan Africa                       672     330     342    50.9%
LAC countries (e)                       7317    3791    3526    48.2%
MENA countries (f)                      1938    1082     856    44.2%
Islamic countries (g)                   4695    2527    2168    46.2%

                                              Skilled migration
                                               (post-secondary)

                                        Both     Men    Women     %

World (a)                               20442   10372   10069   49.3%

World Bank Income Classification (b)

High-income countries                   7911    3934    3977    50.3%
Upper-Middle-income countries           3729    1890    1839    49.3%
Lower-Middle-income countries           5691    2762    2929    51.5%
Low-income countries                    2918    1683    1235    42.3%

United Nations Classification (c)

Least Developed Countries                813     473     340    41.8%
Landlocked Developing countries          524     282     241    46.1%
Small Island Developing countries       1536     701     835    54.4%

United Nations Classification (d)

Africa                                  1373     817     556    40.5%
  Eastern Africa                         346     194     152    43.9%
  Central Africa                         74      47      28     37.0%
  Northern Africa                        457     289     167    36.6%
  Southern Africa                        177     90      87     49.3%
  Western Africa                         319     197     122    38.2%
Americas                                4631    2203    2428    52.4%
  Caribbean                             1150     507     643    55.9%
  Central America                       1377     707     670    48.6%
  South America                         1155     541     613    53.1%
  North America                          950     448     502    52.9%
Asia                                    7002    3595    3408    48.7%
  Central Asia                           40      17      23     57.6%
  Eastern Asia                          2251    1077    1174    52.2%
  Southern Asia                         1823    1071     752    41.2%
  South-Eastern Asia                    2148     981    1167    54.3%
  Western Asia                           740     448     292    39.4%
Europe                                  6864    3467    3397    49.5%
  Eastern Europe                        1571     745     826    52.6%
  Northern Europe                       2066    1040    1026    49.6%
  Southern Europe                       1377     768     609    44.2%
  Western Europe                        1850     914     936    50.6%
Oceania                                  379     187     192    50.7%
  Australia and New Zealand              293     144     149    50.8%
  Others Oceania                         86      43      43     50.3%

Groups of interest

OECD members                            8656    4356    4301    49.7%
Large countries (>75M)                  7058    3510    3549    50.3%
Sub-Saharan Africa                       916     528     388    42.4%
LAC countries (e)                       3682    1755    1926    52.3%
MENA countries (f)                      1228     760     469    38.2%
Islamic countries (g)                   2380    1428     952    40.0%

(a) In the World total, we include individuals with unknown origin
country.

(b) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/O,,
contentMDK:20420458~menuPK:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:
64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html

(b) http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/lldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm

(d) http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm

(e) LAC @ Central America A South America A The Caribbean;
Sub-Saharan Africa @ Africa--Northern Africa

(f) http://web.worldbank.org/SITE/EXTE/AL/CO/NTRIES/MENAEXT/0,,
menuPK:247606~pagePK:146732~piPK:146828~theSitePK:256299,00.html

(g) http://www.islamic-world.net/countries/index.htm

Table 4. Top-30 total and skilled emigration stocks in 2000

Total migration

Country                   Both       Men      omen     Fem%

Mexico                   6434391   3518573   2915818   45.3%
United Kingdom           2990352   1443664   1546688   51.7%
Italy                    2336966   1242585   1094381   46.8%
Germany                  2299491    978663   1320828   57.4%
Turkey                   1942452   1055113    887339   45.7%
India                    1695646    896624    799022   47.1%
Philippines              1677762    634329   1043434   62.2%
China                    1675535    787353    888182   53.0%
Vietnam                  1261395    622004    639391   50.7%
Portugal                 1209175    619630    589545   48.8%
Korea                    1205118    523637    681480   56.5%
Poland                   1122078    492106    629972   56.1%
Morocco                  1067016    616834    450182   42.2%
Cuba                      871708    417785    453923   52.1%
Canada                    853941    374095    479846   56.2%
France                    796016    357298    438717   55.1%
Ukraine                   747673    308590    439083   58.7%
Greece                    713826    381491    332335   46.6%
Spain                     710653    336202    374451   52.7%
Serbia and Montenegro     683512    358190    325322   47.6%
Jamaica                   681075    293053    388022   57.0%
Ireland                   680459    312741    367719   54.0%
United States             679598    322456    357141   52.6%
El Salvador               664942    328652    336290   50.6%
Algeria                   609099    357386    251713   41.3%
Pakistan                  581903    329264    252638   43.4%
Dominican Republic        578987    245058    333930   57.7%
Colombia                  574924    240415    334509   58.2%
Netherlands               570984    293226    277758   48.6%
Russia                    552731    224711    328019   59.3%

Skilled

United Kingdom           1478477    771923    706553   47.8%
Philippines              1111075    441227    669848   60.3%
India                    1034373    590412    443960   42.9%
Mexico                    949334    501324    448010   47.2%
Germany                   936523    446085    490438   52.4%
China                     783369    391455    391914   50.0%
Korea                     612939    294123    318816   52.0%
Canada                    523463    244693    278770   53.3%
Vietnam                   505503    279239    226264   44.8%
Poland                    454560    206348    248213   54.6%
United States             426103    202872    223231   52.4%
Italy                     395233    232840    162393   41.1%
Cuba                      331908    162359    169549   51.1%
France                    310754    145310    165444   53.2%
ran                       303385    181744    121642   40.1%
China, Hong Kong SAR      292575    146980    145595   49.8%
Jamaica                   286932    108865    178068   62.1%
Japan                     278272    115096    163176   58.6%
Taiwan                    274168    124078    150089   54.7%
Russia                    270445    114504    155940   57.7%
Netherlands               254734    142438    112296   44.1%
Ukraine                   249015    112195    136821   54.9%
Colombia                  233073    105745    127328   54.6%
Ireland                   228144    111497    116646   51.1%
Pakistan                  220591    138144     82447   37.4%
New Zealand               174872     88391     86481   49.5%
Turkey                    174689    110977     63712   36.5%
South Africa              173021     87561     85461   49.4%
Peru                      163931     78561     85371   52.1%
Romania                   162904     82107     80797   49.6%

Table 5. Adult population (25+) by education and gender in 1990
(in thousands)

                                           Total adult population
                                           (All education levels)

                                     Both       Men      Women      %

World                               2558790   1265409   1293381   50.5%

World Bank Income
  Classification (a)

High-income countries               585129    281305    303824    51.9%
Upper-Middle-income countries       359928    170519    189409    52.6%
Lower-Middle-income countries       919340    463152    456187    49.6%
Low-income countries                694394    350433    343961    49.5%

United Nations
  Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries           189008     92640     96368    51.0%
Landlocked Developing countries     108517     52310     56207    51.8%
Small Island Developing
  countries                          24960     12517     12444    49.9%

United Nations
  Classification (c)

Africa                              228448    111422    117026    51.2%
  Eastern Africa                     67073     32384     34689    51.7%
  Central Africa                     25338     12141     13197    52.1%
  Northern Africa                    56322     27827     28495    50.6%
  Southern Africa                    16960     8184      8777     51.7%
  Western Africa                     62756     30886     31870    50.8%
Americas                            372244    179763    192480    51.7%
  Caribbean                          13321     6539      6782     50.9%
  Central America                    43350     20862     22487    51.9%
  South America                     135012     65713     69298    51.3%
  North America                     180561     86649     93913    52.0%
Asia                                1473723   748424    725300    49.2%
  Central Asia                       22159     10485     11674    52.7%
  Eastern Asia                      701412    356889    344523    49.1%
  Southern Asia                     499396    256417    242979    48.7%
  South-Eastern Asia                187498     92150     95348    50.9%
  Western Asia                       63258     32483     30775    48.7%
Europe                              469662    218494    251168    53.5%
  Eastern Europe                    196640     89051    107589    54.7%
  Northern Europe                    60675     28691     31984    52.7%
  Southern Europe                    92936     44267     48669    52.4%
  Western Europe                    119411     56485     62926    52.7%
Oceania                              14713     7306      7407     50.3%
  Australia and New Zealand          12489     6122      6366     51.0%
  Others Oceania                     2224      1184      1041     46.8%

Groups of interest

OECD members                        647623    309840    337783    52.2%
Large countries (>75M)              1697740   848562    849178    50.0%
Sub-Saharan Africa                  172127     83595     88532    51.4%
LAC countries                       191682     93115     98568    51.4%
MENA countries (e)                   97083     49678     47405    48.8%
Islamic countries (f)               393474    196851    196623    50.0%

                                         Unskilled adult population
                                           (Less than secondary)

                                     Both       Men      Women      %

World                               1575685   690634    885051    56.2%

World Bank Income
  Classification (a)

High-income countries               198735     90484    108251    54.5%
Upper-Middle-income countries       198041     82375    115666    58.4%
Lower-Middle-income countries       599891    249743    350148    58.4%
Low-income countries                579018    268032    310986    53.7%

United Nations
  Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries           167550     76941     90609    54.1%
Landlocked Developing countries      80333     35299     45034    56.1%
Small Island Developing
  countries                          19253     9373      9880     51.3%

United Nations
  Classification (c)

Africa                              197578     91085    106492    53.9%
  Eastern Africa                     60242     27730     32512    54.0%
  Central Africa                     22195     9940      12255    55.2%
  Northern Africa                    46804     21427     25376    54.2%
  Southern Africa                    12448     5968      6480     52.1%
  Western Africa                     55889     26020     29869    53.4%
Americas                            163146     80129     83018    50.9%
  Caribbean                          9362      4470      4892     52.3%
  Central America                    30665     14276     16390    53.4%
  South America                     101872     49100     52771    51.8%
  North America                      21247     12283     8964     42.2%
Asia                                1021116   447196    573920    56.2%
  Central Asia                       6273      1387      4886     77.9%
  Eastern Asia                      413492    165775    247717    59.9%
  Southern Asia                     408891    190467    218424    53.4%
  South-Eastern Asia                147308     68337     78971    53.6%
  Western Asia                       45152     21230     23922    53.0%
Europe                              188040     69492    118548    63.0%
  Eastern Europe                     56758     12251     44507    78.4%
  Northern Europe                    25100     11334     13766    54.8%
  Southern Europe                    68214     30850     37364    54.8%
  Western Europe                     37969     15058     22911    60.3%
Oceania                              5805      2731      3073     52.9%
  Australia and New Zealand          3881      1732      2150     55.4%
  Others Oceania                     1923       999       924     48.0%

Groups of interest

OECD members                        241987    108823    133163    55.0%
Large countries (>75M)              1031939   448934    583005    56.5%
Sub-Saharan Africa                  150774     69658     81116    53.8%
LAC countries                       141899     67846     74054    52.2%
MENA countries (e)                   75184     35317     39866    53.0%
Islamic countries (f)               314663    144283    170380    54.1%

                                         Skilled adult population
                                              (post-secondary)

                                     Both       Men      Women      %

World                               232292    138405     93887    40.4%

World Bank Income
  Classification (a)

High-income countries               138946     78689     60256    43.4%
Upper-Middle-income countries        34850     19222     15628    44.8%
Lower-Middle-income countries        35787     23907     11880    33.2%
Low-income countries                 22710     16586     6123     27.0%

United Nations
  Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries            3203      2403       800     25.0%
Landlocked Developing countries      5055      3047      2008     39.7%
Small Island Developing
  countries                          1213       732       481     39.7%

United Nations
  Classification (c)

Africa                               5720      4314      1406     24.6%
  Eastern Africa                     1031       721       310     30.1%
  Central Africa                      351       291       60      17.2%
  Northern Africa                    2557      1905       651     25.5%
  Southern Africa                     620       442       178     28.7%
  Western Africa                     1162       955       207     17.8%
Americas                             88679     48877     39802    44.9%
  Caribbean                           883       487       396     44.8%
  Central America                    3806      2348      1458     38.3%
  South America                      12382     6647      5735     46.3%
  North America                      71607     39395     32213    45.0%
Asia                                 69339     47075     22264    32.1%
  Central Asia                       2650      1492      1158     43.7%
  Eastern Asia                       33388     23046     10342    31.0%
  Southern Asia                      18313     13730     4583     25.0%
  South-Eastern Asia                 9820      5510      4310     43.9%
  Western Asia                       5168      3296      1871     36.2%
Europe                               64797     35838     28959    44.7%
  Eastern Europe                     23405     12524     10881    46.5%
  Northern Europe                    9265      5034      4231     45.7%
  Southern Europe                    7449      4067      3382     45.4%
  Western Europe                     24678     14213     10465    42.4%
Oceania                              3757      2301      1456     38.7%
  Australia and New Zealand          3722      2277      1445     38.8%
  Others Oceania                      35        24        11      30.6%

Groups of interest

OECD members                        142651     80926     61726    43.3%
Large countries (>75M)              150862     91585     59277    39.3%
Sub-Saharan Africa                   3164      2408       755     23.9%
LAC countries                        17072     9483      7589     44.5%
MENA countries (e)                   5878      4044      1834     31.2%
Islamic countries (f)                14885     10478     4407     29.6%

(a) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNALD/DATASTATISTICS/
O,,contentMDK:20420458~menuPK:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:
64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html

(b) http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/lldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm

(c) http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm

(d) LAC = Central America + South America + The Caribbean;
Sub-Saharan Africa = Africa - Northern Africa

(e) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/
0,,menuPK:247606~pagePK:146732~piPK:146828~theSitePK:256299,00.html

(f) http://www.islamic-world.net/countries/index.htm

Table 6. Adult population (25+) by education and gender in 200
(in thousands)

                                          Total adult population
                                          (All education levels)

                                    Both       Men      Women      %

World                              3179718   1571014   1608705   50.6%

World Bank Income
  Classification (a)

High-income countries              662506    320073    342433    51.7%
Upper-Middle-income countries      426226    201629    224597    52.7%
Lower-Middle-income countries      1187136   594021    593115    50.0%
Low-income countries               903851    455291    448560    49.6%

United Nations
  Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries          249873    122450    127423    51.0%
Landlocked Developing countries    136479     65749     70729    51.8%
Small Island Developing
  countries                         33181     16588     16593    50.0%

United Nations
  Classification (c)

Africa                             300244    146437    153808    51.2%
  Eastern Africa                    87250     42114     45136    51.7%
  Central Africa                    32615     15739     16876    51.7%
  Northern Africa                   75418     37220     38197    50.6%
  Southern Africa                   23453     11149     12304    52.5%
  Western Africa                    81509     40214     41295    50.7%
Americas                           455273    219276    235997    51.8%
  Caribbean                         16450     8066      8384     51.0%
  Central America                   60580     28895     31685    52.3%
  South America                    173793     83980     89814    51.7%
  North America                    204449     98335    106114    51.9%
Asia                               1907394   963284    944110    49.5%
  Central Asia                      25338     12062     13276    52.4%
  Eastern Asia                     896953    452397    444556    49.6%
  Southern Asia                    648079    331300    316779    48.9%
  South-Eastern Asia               250518    122921    127598    50.9%
  Western Asia                      86506     44605     41900    48.4%
Europe                             499035    233352    265684    53.2%
  Eastern Europe                   200828     90832    109996    54.8%
  Northern Europe                   64279     30592     33687    52.4%
  Southern Europe                  103439     49491     53947    52.2%
  Western Europe                   130490     62436     68054    52.2%
Oceania                             17773     8665      9107     51.2%
  Australia and New Zealand         14842     7170      7672     51.7%
  Others Oceania                    2931      1496      1435     49.0%

Groups of interest

OECD members                       739278    355109    384169    52.0%
Large countries (>75M)             2130619   1062349   1068270   50.1%
Sub-Saharan Africa                 224826    109216    115610    51.4%
LAC countries                      250823    120941    129882    51.8%
MENA countries (e)                 133690     68193     65497    49.0%
Islamic countries (f)              519936    260151    259785    50.0%

                                        Unskilled adult population
                                          (Less than secondary)

                                    Both       Men      Women      %

World                              1885976   835349    1050627   55.7%

World Bank Income
  Classification (a)

High-income countries              187105     85076    102030    54.5%
Upper-Middle-income countries      229680     97447    132233    57.6%
Lower-Middle-income countries      743374    317291    426083    57.3%
Low-income countries               725817    335535    390282    53.8%

United Nations
  Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries          215479     99367    116112    53.9%
Landlocked Developing countries    102761     45971     56790    55.3%
Small Island Developing
  countries                         23333     11364     11970    51.3%

United Nations
  Classification (c)

Africa                             237175    108413    128762    54.3%
  Eastern Africa                    75730     35271     40458    53.4%
  Central Africa                    26346     11481     14865    56.4%
  Northern Africa                   55457     25233     30225    54.5%
  Southern Africa                   10507     4456      6052     57.6%
  Western Africa                    69134     31971     37163    53.8%
Americas                           181841     86948     94894    52.2%
  Caribbean                         9945      4800      5145     51.7%
  Central America                   38669     17961     20708    53.6%
  South America                    120930     57977     62953    52.1%
  North America                     12298     6209      6088     49.5%
Asia                               1263557   560154    703403    55.7%
  Central Asia                      9106      2735      6371     70.0%
  Eastern Asia                     508642    211117    297525    58.5%
  Southern Asia                    507936    235540    272396    53.6%
  South-Eastern Asia               180363     83883     96479    53.5%
  Western Asia                      57510     26879     30631    53.3%
Europe                             197247     76869    120378    61.0%
  Eastern Europe                    67634     19006     48628    71.9%
  Northern Europe                   20508     9467      11041    53.8%
  Southern Europe                   67532     30653     36878    54.6%
  Western Europe                    41574     17743     23831    57.3%
Oceania                             6156      2965      3191     51.8%
  Australia and New Zealand         3683      1738      1945     52.8%
  Others Oceania                    2473      1227      1246     50.4%

Groups of interest

OECD members                       238790    107414    131376    55.0%
Large countries (>75M)             1258734   553740    704994    56.0%
Sub-Saharan Africa                 181718     83180     98538    54.2%
LAC countries                      169543     80738     88805    52.4%
MENA countries (e)                  90775     42064     48711    53.7%
Islamic countries (f)              393241    180297    212944    54.2%

                                         Skilled adult population
                                             (post-secondary)

                                    Both       Men      Women      %

World                              354282    196657    157625    44.5%

World Bank Income
  Classification (a)

High-income countries              197637    101680     95958    48.6%
Upper-Middle-income countries       56532     30122     26410    46.7%
Lower-Middle-income countries       64353     39946     24407    37.9%
Low-income countries                35760     24910     10851    30.3%

United Nations
  Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries           5777      4131      1646     28.5%
Landlocked Developing countries     8220      4858      3363     40.9%
Small Island Developing
  countries                         2206      1273       933     42.3%

United Nations
  Classification (c)

Africa                              11813     8112      3701     31.3%
  Eastern Africa                    1560      1053       507     32.5%
  Central Africa                     642       547       95      14.7%
  Northern Africa                   5386      3610      1777     33.0%
  Southern Africa                   2250      1190      1060     47.1%
  Western Africa                    1975      1712       263     13.3%
Americas                           134569     66349     68220    50.7%
  Caribbean                         1527       827       700     45.8%
  Central America                   6679      3822      2857     42.8%
  South America                     21447     10853     10595    49.4%
  North America                    104916     50847     54069    51.5%
Asia                               114803     73439     41363    36.0%
  Central Asia                      4366      2469      1897     43.4%
  Eastern Asia                      52231     33946     18286    35.0%
  Southern Asia                     28739     20470     8269     28.8%
  South-Eastern Asia                19729     10622     9107     46.2%
  Western Asia                      9737      5932      3805     39.1%
Europe                              88175     46051     42124    47.8%
  Eastern Europe                    33705     17693     16012    47.5%
  Northern Europe                   12704     6479      6225     49.0%
  Southern Europe                   11250     5757      5493     48.8%
  Western Europe                    30515     16122     14394    47.2%
Oceania                             4923      2706      2217     45.0%
  Australia and New Zealand         4844      2653      2191     45.2%
  Others Oceania                     79        53        25      32.2%

Groups of interest

OECD members                       203547    105145     98401    48.3%
Large countries (>75M)             224760    125793     98967    44.0%
Sub-Saharan Africa                  6427      4502      1925     29.9%
LAC countries                       29653     15502     14151    47.7%
MENA countries (e)                  12205     7794      4411     36.1%
Islamic countries (f)               30324     20330     9994     33.0%

(a) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNALD/DATASTATISTICS/
O,,contentMDK:20420458~menuPK:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:
64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html

(b) http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/lldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm

(c) http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm

(d) LAC = Central America + South America + The Caribbean;
Sub-Saharan Africa = Africa--Northern Africa

(e) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/
0,,menuPK:247606~pagePK:146732~piPK:146828~theSitePK:256299,00.html

(f) http://www.islamic-world.net/countries/index.htm

Table 7. Rates of emigration by education and gender in 1990

                                                Total migration
                                             (All education levels)

                                        Both    Males   Females   Ratio

World                                    1.6%    1.6%     1.6%    1.001

World Bank Income Classification (a)

High-income countries                    3.0%    2.9%     3.0%    1.040
Upper-Middle-income countries            2.5%    2.7%     2.3%    0.845
Lower-Middle-income countries            1.1%    1.0%     1.1%    1.025
Low-income countries                     0.5%    0.5%     0.5%    0.848

United Nations Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries                0.7%    0.8%     0.6%    0.781
Landlocked Developing countries          0.7%    0.8%     0.6%    0.803
Small Island Developing countries        9.6%    9.0%    10.2%    1.137

United Nations Classification (c)

Africa                                   1.2%    1.5%     1.0%    0.663
  Eastern Africa                         0.8%    0.8%     0.7%    0.864
  Central Africa                         0.4%    0.5%     0.3%    0.657
  Northern Africa                        2.9%    3.5%     2.2%    0.630
  Southern Africa                        0.8%    0.8%     0.8%    0.984
  Western Africa                         0.7%    0.8%     0.5%    0.565
Americas                                 2.2%    2.2%     2.2%    0.998
  Caribbean                             12.8%   12.2%    13.4%    1.103
  Central America                        7.4%    8.0%     6.9%    0.854
  South America                          1.2%    1.1%     1.2%    1.114
  North America                          0.8%    0.7%     0.8%    1.176
Asia                                     0.6%    0.6%     0.6%    1.016
  Central Asia                           0.2%    0.2%     0.2%    1.043
  Eastern Asia                           0.4%    0.3%     0.4%    1.209
  Southern Asia                          0.4%    0.4%     0.4%    0.824
  South-Eastern Asia                     1.4%    1.3%     1.5%    1.156
  Western Asia                           3.3%    3.6%     3.0%    0.828
Europe                                   4.0%    4.1%     3.8%    0.943
  Eastern Europe                         1.8%    1.9%     1.8%    0.935
  Northern Europe                        6.9%    6.7%     7.1%    1.053
  Southern Europe                        7.0%    7.6%     6.3%    0.827
  Western Europe                         3.4%    3.2%     3.7%    1.158
Oceania                                  3.4%    3.3%     3.5%    1.066
  Australia and New Zealand              3.0%    2.9%     3.0%    1.042
  Others Oceania                         6.0%    5.4%     6.6%    1.213

Groups of interest

OECD members                             3.4%    3.4%     3.3%    0.978
Large countries (>75M)                   0.6%    0.6%     0.6%    1.061
Sub-Saharan Africa                       0.7%    0.8%     0.6%    0.739
LAC countries                            3.5%    3.6%     3.5%    0.975
MENA countries (e)                       2.8%    3.2%     2.3%    0.704
Islamic countries (f)                    1.5%    1.7%     1.2%    0.737

                                              Unskilled migration
                                             (Less than secondary)

                                        Both    Males   Females   Ratio

World                                   1.2%    1.4%     1.1%     0.833

World Bank Income Classification (a)

High-income countries                   3.9%    3.9%     3.8%     0.980
Upper-Middle-income countries           2.7%    3.2%     2.3%     0.694
Lower-Middle-income countries           0.8%    0.9%     0.7%     0.735
Low-income countries                    0.3%    0.3%     0.3%     0.886

United Nations Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries               0.4%    0.5%     0.4%     0.815
Landlocked Developing countries         0.5%    0.5%     0.4%     0.746
Small Island Developing countries       5.6%    5.3%     5.9%     1.105

United Nations Classification (c)

Africa                                  0.9%    1.1%     0.7%     0.624
  Eastern Africa                        0.4%    0.3%     0.4%     1.011
  Central Africa                        0.2%    0.2%     0.2%     0.742
  Northern Africa                       2.6%    3.3%     1.9%     0.568
  Southern Africa                       0.2%    0.2%     0.3%     1.291
  Western Africa                        0.4%    0.5%     0.3%     0.567
Americas                                2.5%    2.5%     2.5%     0.991
  Caribbean                             8.2%    8.0%     8.4%     1.053
  Central America                       7.3%    8.2%     6.5%     0.794
  South America                         0.5%    0.4%     0.5%     1.236
  North America                         1.9%    1.4%     2.5%     1.797
Asia                                    0.4%    0.4%     0.4%     0.849
  Central Asia                          0.3%    0.6%     0.2%     0.306
  Eastern Asia                          0.2%    0.2%     0.2%     0.945
  Southern Asia                         0.2%    0.2%     0.2%     0.853
  South-Eastern Asia                    0.6%    0.6%     0.7%     1.176
  Western Asia                          3.1%    3.6%     2.7%     0.773
Europe                                  4.9%    6.2%     4.2%     0.684
  Eastern Europe                        3.2%    6.3%     2.3%     0.368
  Northern Europe                       5.7%    5.5%     5.8%     1.053
  Southern Europe                       6.5%    7.3%     5.9%     0.807
  Western Europe                        4.1%    4.1%     4.1%     0.986
Oceania                                 2.2%    2.1%     2.2%     1.066
  Australia and New Zealand             1.9%    1.9%     1.9%     0.990
  Others Oceania                        2.7%    2.5%     3.1%     1.252

Groups of interest

OECD members                            4.5%    4.8%     4.3%     0.887
Large countries (>75M)                  0.5%    0.5%     0.4%     0.843
Sub-Saharan Africa                      0.3%    0.4%     0.3%     0.782
LAC countries                           2.6%    2.7%     2.5%     0.917
MENA countries (e)                      2.1%    2.6%     1.7%     0.645
Islamic countries (f)                   1.1%    1.4%     0.9%     0.671

                                               Skilled migration
                                                (post-secondary)

                                        Both    Males   Females   Ratio

World                                    5.0%    4.5%     5.7%    1.273

World Bank Income Classification (a)

High-income countries                    4.0%    3.6%     4.4%    1.227
Upper-Middle-income countries            5.5%    5.5%     5.5%    1.008
Lower-Middle-income countries            8.1%    6.4%    11.2%    1.752
Low-income countries                     5.5%    4.7%     7.5%    1.582

United Nations Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries               11.4%    9.7%    16.1%    1.657
Landlocked Developing countries          5.0%    4.8%     0.3%    1.104
Small Island Developing countries       43.1%   38.0%    49.4%    1.302

United Nations Classification (c)

Africa                                  11.2%    9.7%    15.6%    1.608
  Eastern Africa                        16.5%   14.6%    20.7%    1.415
  Central Africa                         9.7%    7.9%    17.6%    2.225
  Northern Africa                        9.2%    8.3%    11.7%    1.411
  Southern Africa                       11.3%    8.8%    16.9%    1.914
  Western Africa                        11.0%    9.5%    17.4%    1.842
Americas                                 2.9%    2.6%     3.3%    1.255
  Caribbean                             44.0%   40.4%    47.8%    1.182
  Central America                       13.7%   12.0%    16.2%    1.350
  South America                          4.8%    4.5%     5.2%    1.144
  North America                          1.0%    0.8%     1.2%    1.389
Asia                                     5.2%    4.2%     7.1%    1.699
  Central Asia                           0.3%    0.3%     0.4%    1.522
  Eastern Asia                           3.7%    2.8%     5.7%    2.030
  Southern Asia                          4.4%    3.8%     6.4%    1.684
  South-Eastern Asia                    10.8%    9.4%    12.5%    1.324
  Western Asia                           8.0%    8.0%     7.9%    0.987
Europe                                   7.0%    6.7%     7.3%    1.090
  Eastern Europe                         3.6%    3.6%     3.5%    0.979
  Northern Europe                       14.4%   13.7%    15.4%    1.124
  Southern Europe                       11.5%   12.3%    10.4%    0.845
  Western Europe                         5.6%    5.0%     6.5%    1.310
Oceania                                  5.5%    4.7%     6.9%    1.457
  Australia and New Zealand              4.3%    3.6%     5.3%    1.480
  Others Oceania                        61.2%   54.3%    71.0%    1.306

Groups of interest

OECD members                             4.1%    3.8%     4.5%    1.199
Large countries (>75M)                   2.4%    2.1%     3.0%    1.418
Sub-Saharan Africa                      12.8%   10.8%    18.7%    1.734
LAC countries                           10.1%    9.3%    11.2%    1.211
MENA countries (e)                      11.3%   10.9%    12.1%    1.112
Islamic countries (f)                    8.1%    7.4%     9.6%    1.296

(a) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNALD/DATASTATISTICS/
O,,contentMDK:20420458~menuPK:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:
64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html

(b) http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/lldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm

(c) http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm

(d) LAC = Central America + South America + The Caribbean;
Sub-Saharan Africa = Africa--Northern Africa

(e) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/
0,,menuPK:247606~pagePK:146732~piPK:146828~theSitePK:256299,00.html

(f) http://www.islamic-world.net/countries/index.htm

Table 8. Rates of emigration by education and gender in 2000

                                               Total migration
                                            (All education levels)

                                       Both    Males   Females   Ratio

World                                   1.8%    1.8%     1.8%    1.011

World Bank Income Classification (a)

High-income countries                   2.9%    2.8%     3.0%    1.045
Upper-Middle-income countries           3.5%    3.8%     3.2%    0.859
Lower-Middle-income countries           1.3%    1.2%     1.3%    1.077
Low-income countries                    0.7%    0.7%     0.7%    0.920

United Nations Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries               0.9%    1.0%     0.9%    0.877
Landlocked Developing countries         1.0%    1.0%     0.9%    0.891
Small Island Developing countries      11.1%   10.1%    11.9%    1.176

United Nations Classification (c)

Africa                                  1.4%    1.6%     1.2%    0.753
  Eastern Africa                        0.9%    0.9%     0.9%    0.957
  Central Africa                        0.7%    0.7%     0.6%    0.807
  Northern Africa                       2.9%    3.4%     2.4%    0.688
  Southern Africa                       1.1%    1.2%     1.1%    0.988
  Western Africa                        1.0%    1.1%     0.8%    0.721
Americas                                3.3%    3.4%     3.2%    0.950
  Caribbean                            15.5%   14.3%    16.6%    1.157
  Central America                      11.7%   13.0%    10.6%    0.817
  South America                         1.6%    1.6%     1.7%    1.113
  North America                         0.7%    0.7%     0.8%    1.113
  Asia                                  0.8%    0.8%     0.8%    1.073
  Central Asia                          0.3%    0.3%     0.3%    1.141
  Eastern Asia                          0.5%    0.4%     0.5%    1.255
  Southern Asia                         0.5%    0.6%     0.5%    0.869
  South-Eastern Asia                    1.7%    1.5%     1.9%    1.252
  Western Asia                          3.5%    3.7%     3.3%    0.881
Europe                                  4.1%    4.2%     4.0%    0.961
  Eastern Europe                        2.2%    2.1%     2.2%    1.014
  Northern Europe                       6.7%    6.6%     6.8%    1.032
  Southern Europe                       6.8%    7.3%     6.2%    0.853
  Western Europe                        3.4%    3.2%     3.6%    1.131
Oceania                                 4.3%    4.2%     4.3%    1.020
  Australia and New Zealand             3.7%    3.7%     3.6%    0.990
  Others Oceania                        7.2%    6.7%     7.7%    1.144

Groups of interest

OECD members                            3.7%    3.7%     3.6%    0.952
Large countries (>75M)                  0.9%    0.9%     0.9%    1.029
Sub-Saharan Africa                      0.9%    1.0%     0.9%    0.848
LAC countries                           5.3%    5.4%     5.1%    0.937
MENA countries (e)                      2.8%    3.1%     2.4%    0.763
Islamic countries (f)                   1.6%    1.8%     1.4%    0.796

                                             Unskilled migration
                                            (Less than secondary)

                                       Both    Males   Females   Ratio

World                                   1.3%    1.4%     1.2%    0.833

World Bank Income Classification (a)

High-income countries                   3.6%    3.6%     3.5%    0.964
Upper-Middle-income countries           3.6%    4.4%     3.0%    0.694
Lower-Middle-income countries           0.9%    1.0%     0.8%    0.797
Low-income countries                    0.3%    0.3%     0.3%    0.981

United Nations Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries               0.5%    0.5%     0.5%    0.915
Landlocked Developing countries         0.5%    0.5%     0.5%    0.862
Small Island Developing countries       6.4%    6.0%     6.8%    1.121

United Nations Classification (c)

Africa                                  0.9%    1.1%     0.7%    0.699
  Eastern Africa                        0.3%    0.3%     0.3%    1.215
  Central Africa                        0.3%    0.4%     0.3%    0.883
  Northern Africa                       2.6%    3.2%     2.0%    0.630
  Southern Africa                       0.3%    0.3%     0.3%    1.006
  Western Africa                        0.5%    0.6%     0.4%    0.682
Americas                                4.0%    4.3%     3.7%    0.867
  Caribbean                            10.4%    9.9%    10.8%    1.093
  Central America                      12.1%   13.9%    10.6%    0.760
  South America                         0.7%    0.6%     0.7%    1.152
  North America                         2.2%    2.0%     2.5%    1.263
  Asia                                  0.4%    0.4%     0.4%    0.918
  Central Asia                          0.3%    0.5%     0.2%    0.480
  Eastern Asia                          0.2%    0.2%     0.2%    0.997
  Southern Asia                         0.2%    0.2%     0.2%    0.912
  South-Eastern Asia                    0.7%    0.6%     0.8%    1.304
  Western Asia                          3.3%    3.7%     3.0%    0.806
Europe                                  4.3%    5.1%     3.8%    0.738
  Eastern Europe                        2.4%    3.6%     2.0%    0.544
  Northern Europe                       5.2%    5.0%     5.4%    1.098
  Southern Europe                       6.5%    7.2%     5.9%    0.820
  Western Europe                        3.3%    3.2%     3.3%    1.056
Oceania                                 2.5%    2.5%     2.5%    1.020
  Australia and New Zealand             2.1%    2.2%     2.0%    0.914
  Others Oceania                        3.1%    2.9%     3.3%    1.158

Groups of interest

OECD members                            5.2%    5.8%     4.8%    0.826
Large countries (>75M)                  0.6%    0.7%     0.6%    0.796
Sub-Saharan Africa                      0.4%    0.4%     0.3%    0.876
LAC countries                           4.1%    4.5%     3.8%    0.852
MENA countries (e)                      2.1%    2.5%     1.7%    0.689
Islamic countries (f)                   1.2%    1.4%     1.0%    0.729

                                              Skilled migration
                                              (post-secondary)

                                       Both    Males   Females   Ratio

World                                   5.4%    5.0%     6.0%    1.200

World Bank Income Classification (a)

High-income countries                   3.8%    3.7%     4.0%    1.068
Upper-Middle-income countries           6.2%    5.9%     6.5%    1.103
Lower-Middle-income countries           8.1%    6.5%    10.7%    1.657
Low-income countries                    7.5%    6.3%    10.2%    1.615

United Nations Classification (b)

Least Developed Countries              12.3%   10.3%    17.1%    1.666
Landlocked Developing countries         6.0%    5.5%     6.7%    1.220
Small Island Developing countries      41.0%   35.5%    47.2%    1.330

United Nations Classification (c)

Africa                                 10.4%    9.2%    13.1%    1.427
  Eastern Africa                       18.1%   15.6%    23.0%    1.481
  Central Africa                       10.4%    7.9%    22.6%    2.863
  Northern Africa                       7.8%    7.4%     8.6%    1.160
  Southern Africa                       7.3%    7.0%     7.6%    1.085
  Western Africa                       13.9%   10.3%    31.7%    3.065
Americas                                3.3%    3.2%     3.4%    1.070
  Caribbean                            43.0%   38.0%    47.9%    1.261
  Central America                      17.1%   15.6%    19.0%    1.217
  South America                         5.1%    4.8%     5.5%    1.151
  North America                         0.9%    0.9%     0.9%    1.054
  Asia                                  5.7%    4.7%     7.6%    1.631
  Central Asia                          0.9%    0.7%     1.2%    1.757
  Eastern Asia                          4.1%    3.1%     6.0%    1.962
  Southern Asia                         6.0%    5.0%     8.3%    1.676
  South-Eastern Asia                    9.8%    8.5%    11.4%    1.343
  Western Asia                          7.1%    7.0%     7.1%    1.013
Europe                                  7.2%    7.0%     7.5%    1.066
  Eastern Europe                        4.5%    4.0%     4.9%    1.215
  Northern Europe                      14.0%   13.8%    14.1%    1.022
  Southern Europe                      10.9%   11.8%    10.0%    0.848
  Western Europe                        5.7%    5.4%     6.1%    1.138
Oceania                                 7.1%    6.5%     8.0%    1.233
  Australia and New Zealand             5.7%    5.2%     6.4%    1.233
  Others Oceania                       52.3%   44.6%    63.1%    1.416

Groups of interest

OECD members                            4.1%    4.0%     4.2%    1.053
Large countries (>75M)                  3.0%    2.7%     3.5%    1.275
Sub-Saharan Africa                     12.5%   10.5%    16.8%    1.601
LAC countries                          11.0%   10.2%    12.0%    1.178
MENA countries (e)                      9.1%    8.9%     9.6%    1.082
Islamic countries (f)                   7.3%    6.6%     8.7%    1.325

(a) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNALD/DATASTATISTICS/
O,,contentMDK:20420458~menuPK:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:
64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html

(b) http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/lldc/list.htm;
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm

(c) http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm

(d) LAC = Central America + South America + The Caribbean;
Sub-Saharan Africa = Africa--Northern Africa

(e) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/
0,,menuPK:247606~pagePK:146732~piPK:146828~theSitePK:256299,00.html

(f) http://www.islamic-world.net/countries/index.htm

Table 9. Top-30 skilled emigration rates in 2000

Skilled migration (all countries)

Country                            Both     Men    Women    F/M

Guyana                             89.2%   87.8%   90.5%   1.031
Jamaica                            84.7%   80.2%   87.7%   1.095
Saint Vincent and the Grenadine    84.6%   78.8%   88.7%   1.126
Grenada                            84.3%   75.3%   90.6%   1.203
Haiti                              83.4%   81.0%   85.8%   1.059
Cape Verde                         82.4%   85.4%   79.8%   0.934
Palau                              80.9%   72.4%   89.7%   1.239
Trinidad and Tobago                78.9%   73.9%   83.3%   1.127
Saint Kitts and Nevis              78.5%   77.1%   79.6%   1.032
Seychelles                         77.2%   69.0%   84.4%   1.223
Tonga                              75.6%   71.2%   80.5%   1.131
Samoa                              73.4%   67.0%   80.3%   1.198
Nauru                              72.0%   62.5%   83.5%   1.337
Saint Lucia                        68.6%   62.2%   74.3%   1.195
Antigua and Barbuda                68.5%   65.7%   70.6%   1.073
Gambia, The                        67.8%   71.5%   59.5%   0.833
Suriname                           65.8%   64.5%   66.9%   1.037
Belize                             65.5%   53.9%   77.2%   1.432
Tuvalu                             64.9%   59.4%   74.5%   1.254
Dominica                           63.9%   58.8%   68.8%   1.170
Fiji                               62.8%   57.3%   69.5%   1.213
Barbados                           62.6%   60.7%   64.1%   1.056
Malta                              58.3%   56.7%   60.5%   1.066
Mauritius                          55.8%   52.2%   61.1%   1.170
Kiribati                           55.7%   46.5%   70.0%   1.504
Sierra Leone                       49.2%   39.8%   72.2%   1.817
Ghana                              44.6%   39.3%   57.4%   1.462
Liberia                            44.3%   36.3%   61.2%   1.686
Lebanon                            43.8%   42.0%   46.9%   1.118
Marshall Islands                   42.8%   38.5%   49.2%   1.279

Skilled migration (excluding small countries)

Haiti                              83.4%   81.0%   85.8%   1.059
Sierra Leone                       49.2%   39.8%   72.2%   1.817
Ghana                              44.6%   39.3%   57.4%   1.462
Kenya                              38.5%   32.6%   49.5%   1.518
Lao                                37.2%   34.1%   42.8%   1.255
Uganda                             36.0%   31.1%   45.5%   1.461
Somalia                            34.5%   33.1%   36.7%   1.110
El Salvador                        31.7%   31.3%   32.2%   1.026
Nicaragua                          30.2%   28.6%   31.9%   1.116
China, Hong Kong SAR               29.6%   27.6%   31.9%   1.154
Cuba                               28.8%   26.9%   30.8%   1.144
Sri Lanka                          28.2%   26.5%   30.6%   1.153
Papua New Guinea                   27.8%   20.1%   43.0%   2.141
Vietnam                            26.9%   30.5%   23.5%   0.769
Rwanda                             26.3%   20.9%   40.3%   1.929
Honduras                           24.8%   19.4%   31.7%   1.635
Croatia                            24.6%   20.5%   29.2%   1.427
Guatemala                          23.9%   19.9%   30.6%   1.537
Afghanistan                        22.6%   18.5%   34.5%   1.863
Mozambique                         22.5%   18.2%   31.4%   1.727
Dominican Republic                 22.4%   18.0%   27.2%   1.515
Cambodia                           21.4%   27.3%   16.6%   0.608
Malawi                             20.9%   15.9%   36.3%   2.281
Portugal                           18.9%   21.1%   17.1%   0.809
Morocco                            18.0%   17.2%   19.5%   1.130
Cameroon                           17.1%   12.0%   50.7%   4.231
Senegal                            17.1%   15.6%   21.8%   1.401
United Kingdom                     17.1%   17.0%   17.2%   1.012
Zambia                             16.4%   14.0%   21.0%   1.506
Togo                               16.3%   13.6%   28.7%   2.110

Table 10. Ratio of women to men in skilled migration (year 2000)

Country                             Stock ratio

Highest ratio Top-20

Finland                                1.873
Andorra                                1.758
Thailand                               1.735
Grenada                                1.707
Bahamas, The                           1.667
Jamaica                                1.636
Georgia                                1.589
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines       1.562
Turkmenistan                           1.544
Estonia                                1.527
Philippines                            1.518
Antigua and Barbuda                    1.423
Belize                                 1.422
Japan                                  1.418
Kazakhstan                             1.412
Seychelles                             1.392
Panama                                 1.383
Dominican Republic                     1.376
Barbados                               1.376
Tajikistan                             1.362

Lowest ratio Bottom-20

Nepal                                  0.515
Burkina Faso                           0.511
Djibouti                               0.508
Bangladesh                             0.507
Saudi Arabia                           0.503
Mali                                   0.493
Tunisia                                0.490
Jordan                                 0.470
Togo                                   0.456
Congo, Rep. of the                     0.451
Sudan                                  0.450
Niger                                  0.449
Benin                                  0.443
Senegal                                0.441
Central African Republic               0.421
Yemen                                  0.378
Gambia, The                            0.372
Cote d'Ivoire                          0.372
Chad                                   0.340
Mauritania                             0.304

Country                             Rate ratio

Highest ratio Top-20

Nigeria                                4.376
Cameroon                               4.231
Sao Tome and Principe                  4.224
Congo, Dem. Rep. of the                3.711
Guinea                                 3.273
Angola                                 3.269
Burundi                                2.874
China                                  2.682
Guinea-Bissau                          2.651
Bangladesh                             2.462
Benin                                  2.409
Malawi                                 2.281
Burkina Faso                           2.186
Solomon Islands                        2.167
Thailand                               2.152
Papua New Guinea                       2.141
Madagascar                             2.111
Togo                                   2.110
Mali                                   2.069
Mauritania                             2.047

Lowest ratio Bottom-20

Bulgaria                               0.839
Gambia, The                            0.833
Hungary                                0.830
Liechtenstein                          0.817
Portugal                               0.809
Sudan                                  0.798
San Marino                             0.793
Vietnam                                0.769
Israel                                 0.766
Uruguay                                0.745
Italy                                  0.742
Burma (Myanmar)                        0.739
Greece                                 0.703
Botswana                               0.699
Yemen                                  0.685
Jordan                                 0.653
Saudi Arabia                           0.639
Cambodia                               0.608
Lesotho                                0.602
Bhutan                                 0.516