A decade of opportunities. (Airborne Warfare).

As the transatlantic competition in guided weapons grows to match that between Airbus and Boeing in commercial transports, the coming decade will provide a chance for the Raytheon AIM-120 to dominate international sales in the medium-range air-to-air category, before the MBDA Meteor becomes available. Conversely, the decade will provide an opportunity for the BGT Iris-T and MBDA Asraam (and the Kentron A-Darter as well as the rumoured Rafael Python 5) to make a showing in the short-range field.

Whether or not Russia is currently the world-leader in air-to-air guided missiles, it is indisputable that all the significant advances taking place in this field in the West have been triggered by unforseen Russian developments. The shocks began when the Soviets equipped helicopters with lightweight air-to-air missiles in the early 1980s. Surprises continued in the 1990s with the discoveries that, firstly, Russian dogfight missiles were far superior to the Western World's, and secondly that the same applied to their medium-range weapons. In the scramble to compensate for what were serious intelligence failings, America took urgent measures, not all of which have produced sufficiently advanced results to survive long-term in the marketplace.

The limitations of this stopgap generation have created opportunities not only for Europe, but for Eastern Asia, Israel, Russia and South Africa as well. It remains to be seen whether Russia (perhaps with Chinese financial assistance) is establishing a world lead in ultra-long-range missiles to counter stand-off sensor platforms and jammers.

Helo AAMs

The first Russian air-to-air guided missile applied to helicopters was the lightweight (45 kg) infrared homing Molniya R-60 (AA-10). More recently, some helicopters equipped with the 9K114 Shturm system for radio-guided anti-tank missiles have been armed with a variant of the 33.5 kg Kolomna 9M120 Ataka (AT-9) missile, with a proximity fuze and continuous-rod warhead. One of the most serious threats is the KBP 9M121 Vikhr (AT-16), a supersonic laser beam-riding missile that can be used either against tanks or aircraft. Fire-and-forget capability has been provided with an adaptation of the 10.5 kg infrared-homing Kolomna 9M39 Igla (SA-18), which has been adopted as the standard air-to-air armament for the Mi-28 and Ka-50/52, and is being retrofitted to older Russian helicopters.

Responding to Russian rotary-wing armament developments, America used the lightest of its existing air-to-air missiles and its man-portable surface-to-air weapon. With a launch weight of around 85 kg, the Raytheon AIM-9L Sidewinder is a heavy store for a helicopter, but it was accepted for the US Marine Corps AH-1W SuperCobra. The US Army selected the much lighter (10.1 kg) Raytheon FIM-92 Stinger for the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, AH-6 Defender and AH-64 Apache series. Both types are infrared-homing missiles.

The Atas air-to-air Stinger has been cleared for use on a wide range of helicopters, including the UH-60 Black Hawk, the A.129 Mangusta and the German Army Tiger. Its use is also planned for the US Army RAH-66 Comanche. The Atas is now fielded on more than 350 helicopters. A dual launcher complete with two rounds weighs only 47 kg. Development of the Atas began in 1984, and in 1988 the FIM-92B Stinger-Post and FIM-92C Stinger-RMP (Reprogrammable Micro-Processor) were being delivered. The other current version is the FIM-92D Stinger-RMP Block I, which likewise uses a two-wavelength infrared and ultraviolet seeker, but introduces a ring laser gyro to generate launch lead angle, a lithium battery and increased processing capability. Deliveries of kits to produce the later version by upgrading earlier models began in 1995.

In a firing trial in 1996, a Stinger-RMP Block I launched from an OH-58D destroyed a QUH-1 drone at a range of more than 4500 metres. In the following year the ability to cue the missile seeker by means of the mast-mounted sight of the OH-58D was successfully demonstrated. The next generation was to have been the FIM-92E Stinger Block II, with a 128 x 128 focal plane array. Low-rate initial production was due to begin in 2004, but US Army plans for the Block II were terminated in 1999 due to conflicting funding priorities.

The use of an existing lightweight surface-to-air missile as helicopter armament clearly minimises development costs and makes use of an ordnance that already exists in many army inventories. The point is well made by the MBDA Mistral, which is operated by 37 armed services. At 19.5 kg, the Mistral is considerably heavier than the Stinger (the former having been designed for use from a tripod, rather than to be shoulder-fired), but two twin launchers with four rounds weighs less than 200 kg. Maximum range is 6000 metres. The air-to-air Mistral Atam entered service with Gazelles of the French Air Mobile Brigade in 1998, and in the following year the system was cleared for use on the French Army Tiger Hap. It has been claimed to be more manoeuvrable than the Stinger and to be suitable for firing throughout a helicopter's flight envelope. The Atam has also been selected for the South African Air Force Rooivalk.

A third Western project in this area is the Thales Air Defence Air-To-Air Starstreak (Atask), which may be used on the British Army WAH-64D. The Starstreak is a hypersonic projectile that launches three laser beam-riding 0.9 kg darts. Firing trials on an AH-64 in 199798 showed some damage to the helicopter airframe due to blast and debris from the missile's frangible nose cover.

Dogfight

The lightweight Molniya R-60 (AA-8) series mentioned in the helicopter context has also been applied to fixed-wing aircraft such as the Su-25 and MiG-29, but it is not marketed at international trade shows, presumably because its effectiveness in a dogfight is less than outstanding.

The Molniya was also initially responsible for the short-range missile that forced the pace of change in the West: the Vympel R-73 (AA-11). This was made available for Nato inspection when the two Germanys were unified. Employed on the MiG-29 in combination with the Urals Optical-Mechanical Plant SH-3UM-1 helmet-mounted sight, the R-73 provided the ability to fire at targets 30 degrees off-axis (and to track them at twice this angle). According to Raytheon marketing material for the AIM-9X, the fourth-generation R-73 also provided much longer firing range than the third-generation AIM-9M. Reports suggest that the Russian missile was inferior only in susceptibility to countermeasures.

It should perhaps be explained that first-generation infrared-homing missiles, such as the AIM-9B and China's PL-2, had uncooled seekers restricting them to rear engagements in a narrow cone around the target's longitudinal axis. They had poor manoeuvrability and were easily decoyed by flares, the sun, or brightly illuminated cloud backgrounds. Second-generation missiles such as the Rafael Shafrir and the PL-7 were much more manoeuvrable. Third-generation missiles, such as the AIM-9L/M, R-60 and PL-9, have cooled seekers operating on longer wavelengths, giving them the ability to acquire the target and launch from all aspects around it, since they can see the exhaust plume, not simply the hot parts of the engine and jet pipe. Fourth-generation missiles, such as the R-73 and Rafael Python-4, brought the ability to acquire and fire at targets at large angles off the longitudinal axis of the launch aircraft, using a helmet-mounted sight to cue the weapon seeker. Fifth-generation missiles, such as the AIM-9X, the BGT Iris-T, the Kentron A-Darter and MBDA's Asraam, have an imaging seeker, giving much better discrimination against flares and making it possible to attack a specific part of the target, rather than the jet pipe.

Returning to the Vympel R-73, this is a 105 kg missile with a 7.5 kg warhead and a maximum head-on firing range of 30 km. Control combines thrust-vectoring with ailerons on the rear-mounted wings and longitudinal control by means of all-moving canard surfaces. The next export variant is expected to combine a laser fuze (already in use on the Russian Air Force version) with 120-degree off-axis target acquisition and a range of 40 km. There have been numerous reports that the R-73 can provide rear-hemisphere defence, although it is not clear whether the target could reliably be designated for post-launch acquisition (i.e., without risk to friendly aircraft).

Accepting that the AIM-9M was inferior to the R-73, the Pentagon opted for a quick and relatively cheap fix that could be produced by rebuilding the existing missile (at a unit cost of around $264.000), The original rocket motor, fuze and warhead were therefore retained. The resulting Raytheon AIM-9X Evolved Sidewinder achieves a major advance by means of that company's 128 x 128 element focal plane array seeker. Like the R-73, it employs thrust-vectoring to engage very close-range targets at large angles off-axis. Exploiting this initial agility it can be directed at off-axis targets either by means of the launch aircraft radar, or by the Vision Systems International (Kaiser/Elbit) JHMCS (Joint Helmet-Mounted Cueing System). However, its manoeuvrability in the terminal phase may be restricted by the cropping of its aerofoil surfaces (fixed canards and moving rear-mounted wings) to suit internal carriage on the F-22 and F-35. The US Air Force and US Navy plan to buy 10,097 AIM-9Xs over a 17-year period. 1 May 2002 is the estimated missile rollout date, with first-load expected by summer.

The first low-rate initial production contract for the AIM-9X was signed in late 2000, and it is scheduled to be operational on the F/A-18C/D and F-15C by mid-2003. It may be noted that around one-third of a million AIM-9s have been produced for 40 nations. The original AIM-9B entered service in 1956.

The most advanced non-Russian short-range air-to-air missile available for delivery today may well be the Rafael Python 4, which has a 60-degree off-axis engagement capability, and fuselage strakes that make possible 70 G manoeuvres (claimed to be twice the capability of the AIM-9M). The Python 4 has been proposed by Lockheed Martin for the US Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve, pending availability of the AIM-9X or something better. There have been rumours of a Python 5 with an imaging seeker, but it is not clear whether Israel has the capability to produce such a device.

South Africa's Kentron Dynamics is responsible for the imaging-infrared seeker for its A-Darter, which is now under development. It has a wingless airframe with body strakes, plus thrust-vectoring, tail controls and the ability to lock on to the target after launch. The A-Darter is designed to be fired from the LAU-7 Sidewinder launch rail. On the Kentron production line, it follows the third-generation U-Darter, which had a Magic-like configuration, a two-colour seeker and a 17 kg warhead (compared to 9.4 kg for the AIM-9L/M).

The seeker for the MBDA Asraam is the Raytheon unit from the AIM-9X. Like the A-Darter, the 87 kg Asraam has no wings. However, it does not have the body strakes or thrust-vectoring, since (rightly or wrongly) the British requirement does not necessitate such measures. The surprising thing is that the thrust-vectoring version that was demonstrated in an (unsuccessful) attempt to win the US order does not appear to be offered for other prospective international sales. Nonetheless, the Asraam has been selected by Australia for the F/A-18, in competition with the AIM-9X and Python 4. Although the programme has slipped significantly, deliveries of an initial production standard of Asraam to the RAF (for the Tornado F3) began early this year. It will later equip the Harrier GR7/9, the Sea Harrier FA2 and the EF2000.

As in several other military equipment programmes, Britain pressed ahead with Asraam in the hope that other European nations would join in later. In the present context this policy has been unsuccessful, since Germany, Greece, Italy, Norway and Sweden are collaborating on the Iris-T, which is being developed by a team led by Germany's BGT. Seen as an advantage for the export market is the fact that a missile should incorporate no American technology. Although similar to the AIM-9M in weight and length, the Iris-T is a completely European missile, and thus (unlike Asraam) is free from US controls on export sales. Iris-T and Asraam are expected to compete head-on in Spain and Switzerland.

The Iris-T is reported to have a 128 x 4 array seeker, which (aside from being less expensive than 128 x 128) is claimed to be less susceptible to laser countermeasures. It can lock on to targets at more than 90 degrees off-axis, cued either by the aircraft radar or a helmet-mounted sight. BGT has suggested that the Iris-T could also be cued by the aircraft's missile approach warning system to defend against incoming air- or surface-to-air weapons.

The Iris-T has a maximum range in excess of 20 km and can lock on after launch. It employs thrust-vectoring and tail controls. Guided firings are due to be completed by the time these words are published and it is hoped that production will be launched before the end of this year. It is anticipated that 4000 rounds will be manufactured for the five nations, including 1800 for Germany.

Medium Ranges

Certain short-range missiles discussed above have some beyond-visual-range (BVR) capability, implying over 20 km range and the ability to lock on after launch. However, the current standard for medium-range missiles has been set by Russia's Vympel RVV-AE (AA-12), which many Western sources refer to as the R-77. The 175 kg RVV-AE has a maximum range of 100 km, and is distinguished by its `lattice' tail controls, which provide very low hinge-moments, are unstallable and can be folded flat against the missile body while it is on the launch aircraft. It employs three-phase guidance, the inertial first phase later being refined by target updates from the launch aircraft and active radar guidance for the terminal phase. Deliveries to the Russian Air Force began in 1993, and the missile has been exported to China, India, Malaysia and Peru. The 225 kg RVV-AE-PD (R-77M?) is now being developed, using a rocket-ramjet to achieve a maximum range of 160 km. The RVV-AE supersedes the Vympel R-27 (AA-10), which was distinguished by its reverse-taper ailerons, weighed up to 350 kg and had a range of 130 km.

The RVV-AE represents a serious rival to the 150 kg Raytheon AIM-120 Amraam (Advanced Medium-Range Air-Air Missile), which employs a similar guidance system and thus (unlike the semi-active AIM-7 Sparrow) provides fire-and-forget and multi-target engagement capabilities. The AIM-120 dates back to a 1975 study of the future BVR missile needs of the US services. Initial operational capability was reached with the US Air Force in 1991 and with the US Navy in 1993. The type made its first kill in late 1992 over Iraq. More than 11,000 AIM-120s have now been built for 22 nations. The latest export version is the AIM-120C5, which has cropped wings and control-fins to suit internal carriage on the F-22 and F-35. Unit cost is around $300,000. Planned imporvements include a larger rocket motor, an improved warhead and (later) an updated seeker. Italy is expected to make an initial buy of about 150 Lot 16 Amraams to outfit its fleet of Eurofighters, and Raytheon is in dialogue with Germany for 200 missiles, Britain for 400 and Spain for another 150, with procurements expected in 2003/2004.

Europe's most advanced medium-range air-to-air missile--the MBDA Mica--may have started a trend to all-can-do missiles, being designed also for the dogfight role. It thus replaces both the company's short-range Magic series and its medium-range Super 530D. The 112 kg Mica employs thrust-vectoring and is manufactured with the choice of a dual-wavelength imaging-infrared seeker or an active radar head. It is capable of 50 G manoeuvres and has a maximum range of 60 km. The Mica is operational with the French Air Force and Navy, and has been sold to Greece, Qatar, Taiwan and the United Arab Emirates.

Israel has no domestic need to develop a medium-range weapon, since it has the AIM-120. Rafael has nonetheless been working with Kentron Dynamics on a BVR missile, which the former now markets as the Derby and the latter is producing for the South African Air Force as the R-Darter. The 118 kg Derby has an IAI/MBT active radar seeker, which (unlike that of the AIM-120) can be locked on to the target either before or after launch. It employs two forward-mounted ailerons designed to place the wings at 45 degrees to the pitch-plane for optimum manoeuvrability, longitudinal control being applied by canard surfaces. The Derby is lighter than the AIM-120 and is claimed to have the same range and be more manoeuvrable at short ranges (which makes perfect sense since it is lighter). It is also said to be capable of a longer range than the marginally lighter Mica, due to its larger rocket (which implies a lighter warhead).

The general feeling among European services appears to be that the AIM-120 does not provide the manoeuvrability required at extreme ranges. In addition, international sales of the Typhoon, Rafale and Gripen must be supported by a BVR missile that is free from American constraints. The United States has already made it clear in the South Korean fighter contest that the AIM-120 will not necessarily be made available if a European (or Russian) aircraft is selected. In consequence, the ramjet-powered Meteor is being developed for six European nations by a team led by the tri-national MBDA, and including Eads/ Casa, Eads/LFK and Saab Bofors Dynamics. Boeing has joined the team with a view to offering the Meteor to the US services for external installation on aircraft such as the F-15 and F/A-18.

The Meteor will have a multi-stage guidance system with active radar for the terminal phase, a maximum speed of over Mach 4.0 and a range of more than 100 km. MBDA is hoping to receive a $1.5 billion development contract this year. The earliest conceivable series delivery would then be in 2010, meanwhile leaving the field to the AIM-120 and RVV-AE. However, by the time the Meteor is fielded, the Americans may be producing a Dual-Range Air-to-Air Missile that will eventually replace both the AIM-9X and the AIM-120 under the US Air Force Air Superiority Missile Technology (ASMT) programme.

Long Ranges

The only long-range air-to-air missile in the US inventory is the Navy's Raytheon AIM-54 Phoenix, which weighs around 465 kg and has been fired successfully from a range of 200 kilometres. The Phoenix will be phased out with the F-14D. Rather than intercepting aircraft at very long range, before they can launch cruise missiles (now an impossible objective), the US emphasis is on intercepting the missile itself, which may be detected at relatively short range. Northrop Grumman is currently investigating the possibility of developing from its subsonic Mald miniature air-launched decoy an interceptor missile called Mali with a supersonic dash capability. The Mali programme is being run under Darpa funding.

The closest Russian equivalent to the AIM-54 is probably the 490 kg Vympel R-33 (AA-9) with semi-active radar guidance and a range of 120 km, or the more recent 600 kg R-37 with an active radar seeker and a range of 150 km. Both have been used on the MiG-31. In mid-1991, immediately after the Gulf War, the Russian Air Force issued a new requirement, clearly aimed at providing the capability to destroy heavily escorted AEW&C aircraft at considerable distances. In 1993, a mock-up of the proposed Novator KS-172 was unveiled, with a claimed range of 400 km. For a rocket-powered missile, this clearly implies a ballistic trajectory. With a length of 7.4 metres and a 750 kg weight, the KS-172 would be the world's largest and heaviest air-to-air missile. However, little has been heard of it since, and it may have proved incapable of providing anything like the range required.