A contemporary kachina.

A contemporary kachina 

Looking carefully Hopi kachina figures are visual representations of an essential part of Hopi life. As spirits who visit the Hopi people for seven months each year, kachinas serve as intermediaries between the Hopi and their deities, carrying prayers for favorable weather and a bountiful harvest. Hopi religion reflects their dependence upon agriculture for survival in a dry and rugged climate. Religious ceremonies emphasize the everpresent need for rain and good growing conditions.

The most visible and important religious ceremonies are performed by masked and costumed men, who take on the spirits of the kachinas they represent. They sing and dance as a group to call attention to the harmony of purpose and communal responsibility necessary for the gods to hear their prayers. Clowns often appear at these ceremonies to provide comic relief between dances and songs. They satirize Hopi life by acting out and exaggerating improper behavior. In a humorous way, the clowns, like the more serious kachinas, help maintain community harmony by reminding people of the acceptable standards of behavior within the Hopi community.

Carved figures, such as David Phillips' "Koshare" clown (shown in this month's centerspread poster), represent the characters who appear in these religious ceremonies. often called "kachina dolls," these figures traditionally are given to children during kachina ceremonies. These "dolls" are not toys, but are used to teach children the characteristics of each kachina and the importance of the kachinas to the continuing survival of the Hopi community.

Since the beginning of this century, when non-Indians began to take a strong interest in traditional American Indian arts, these figures have also been made for sale to people outside the Hopi community. However, certain kachinas are considered to be too sacred to represent in figures made for sale. As humorous rather than sacred figures, clowns are popular with carvers and collectors.

David Phillips' clown figure reflects traditional costuming and mannerisms, and the traditional method of making these figures. Carved from dried cottonwood root found in desert washes, "kachina dolls" are made mostly in one piece, with projecting details attached with glue or pegs. Paints made from colored clays, minerals and vegetable dyes were used formerly to decorate the figures; these have been replaced by commercial paints, most recently acrylics. After painting, hair, garments, feathers and other accessories may be attached. Phillips' clown appears in the traditional costume of one particular type of clown, the "Hano Clown" or "Koshare:" black-and-white striped body paint, a headdress with two striped horns, a breech cloth (here made of felt), a white cotton sash, a leather bag hanging from the neck, and leather bands at the knees and wrists.

The humor of this clown is augmented by its contemporary accessories--the guitar and tennis shoes. As a traditional figure with such modern attributes, this figure reflects both continuity and change within the Hopi community. Non-Indian cultural influences have been of some benefit to the Hopi, but also have threatened their very survival as a culture and as a people. This clown is both entertaining and poignant in its humor. Is the artist poking fun here at the cultural mix and the effects of outside influence that are contemporary realities for the Hopi? Like the clown it represents, coulo this clown be a gentle reminder of the acceptable limits for adopting the behavior of non-Indian culture?

Comparing

Though figure carving is a centuries old tradition among the Hopi, the style of these figures has changed over time, and changed most dramatically during this century. The earliest figures are stiff and blocky, with large maskshaped heads and summarily indicated body parts. Perhaps in response to non-Indian interest, figures began to be increasingly articulated around the turn of the century. Masks worn by these figures have features that convey their identity, and clothing shows more decorative detail.

During the 1930's some carvers introduced more realistic proportions, more detail and brighter colors, as well as a sense of movement in their figures. After World War II, many Hopi men returned home from serving in the United States armed forces throughout the world. They brought back new ideas, experiences and perspectives that influenced their communities' artistic traditions. Figures from this time on show more variation in costumes, accessories and poses. Arms and legs are separated from the body and rendered as muscular forms, and even fingers are fully articulated.

New trends in style and form that were originally initiated by non-Indian interest have taken hold in figures carved for religious rituals as well as in those made for sale to outsiders. Figures like David Phillips' clown show outside influence not only in the costume and accessories of the non-Hopi world, but also in their style.

David Phillips' fully articulated figure is an example of the most recent style of figure carving. In comparison, another music-making "koshare" or "Hano Clown" illustrates an older style of figure. This clown dances and holds a horn to his mouth in movements that are stiffer than those of David Phillips' more freely exuberant, guitar-strumming figure. Though both clowns have fully delineated, rounded arms and legs, Phillips' figure shows the more realistically rendered musculature of the contemporary style. Both clowns wear the traditional black-and-white striped body paint and horned headdress, black breech cloth, and wrist and knee bands, but the older clown conforms to tradition by wearing the expected red leather moccasins rather than the surprising, more modern tennis shoes worn by Phillips' innovative and endearing figure.

Key concepts

* An art form can be a visual symbol for commonly recognized cultural concepts.

* Artists sometimes create amusing or entertaining images that also contain more serious meanings.

* Within the boundaries of an artistic tradition, forms and styles change and develop over time in response to a variety of influences.

* An artist can combine traditional and contemporary symbols to create an image that is part of an artistic tradition and that also speaks to its own time.

Suggested activities

Elementary

* Hopi clowns poke fun at Hopi society and provide comic relief in serious situations. Discuss various types of clowns. What do clowns from the students' own cultures look like? What kinds of modern attire might they wear to add humor to their role? Have students make and decorate their own clown figures from clay, papier-mache or fabric over wire. Clay and papier-mache figures can be painted with tempera or acrylics, or glazes can be used on clay figures.

* Use Hopi kachinas as a means to explore the connection between cultural activities and the environment. Discuss the relationship of Hopi kachinas and their attributes to their role in bringing good weather. What kinds of activities take place where you live that relate to your weather conditions and environment? Ask students to think about what kinds of spirit figures they might make to bring good weather to your geographical area. What kinds of symbols would these figures carry? Have students make or draw figures that would bring rain, snow, sun, etc.

* Older students can work in small groups to make up a story or ritual of their own time and place. Have students make and arrange a grouping of figures that represents their story or ritual. Figures can be made of clay, papier-mache or wire. Ask students to explain how their grouping of characters conveys the message of the story or ritual it portrays.

* Show students pictures of additional carved Hopi figures. Discuss the relationship of carved figures that show movement to actual performers in motion. Have students make masks or costumes and perform a series of movements appropriate to the figures represented.

Secondary

* Show students other traditional Hopi kachina and clown "dolls." Explore with students the ways that David Phillips' clown is a traditional figure reinterpreted for modern day life. What might the artist be saying about Hopi culture in the 1980's? What do our dolls teach us about our culture? Have students make dolls that represent some aspect of their own time and place using clay, papier-mache, wood or wire. Have students think about what attributes their figures should have. What would such a figure wear? What would it hold? What would its hair look like? How would it move? Have students talk about finished figures as individual pieces and as a group. What do these figures say about contemporary life?

* Discuss with students the role of the clown in Hopi kachina ceremonies, and in the students' own culture. Have students look for images of clowns from other cultures, and develop a cross-cultural comparison of clowning. Who are the clowns of contemporary culture in the United States? Have students paint, draw or make sculptural images of their own cultural clowns.

* Hopi artists have painted images of kachina ceremonies in their village settings that capture the rhythm and movement of the performer. Discuss the ways that two-dimensional and three-dimensional images can depict figures in motion. Ask students to work in groups to depict a ceremony or ritual that is important to them. Where does this activity take place? How do figures move within their setting as part of this activity? Have students create a large-scale mural or drawing of this activity, or make individual figures and arrange them as a group. Students within the group can take turns modeling the various movements they wish to depict.

Resources

Hodge, Gene Meany. The Kachinas are Coming. Los Angeles: Steller-Millar, 1936. A compilation of tales of the Hopi and other Pueblo Indians, with drawings of kachinas that play a part in the stories and explanatory notes for each story.

Introduction to Hopi Kachinas, An. Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona, 1977. A concise and useful introduction to Hopi culture, the role of kachinas in Hopi religion, and the historical development of carved kachina representations.

Jacobs, Martina Magenau. Kachina Ceremonies and Kachina Dolls. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Carnegie Institute, 1980. Excellent introduction to Hopi religion and the role of kachinas in Hopi life and religious ceremonies. In-depth discussion of the various types of kachinas spirits and their impersonations, and their representation in carved figures; includes a useful history of the stylistic development of kachina figures.

Page, Susanne and Jake. Hopi. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1982. A beautifully illustrated overview of Hopi history and culture, and an in-depth portrayal of contemporary Hopi life.

Washburn, Dorothy K., ed. Hopi Kachinas: Spirit of Life. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980. An excellent discussion of the link between Hopi art and culture. Contains illustrations of traditional and contemporary kachinas. Catalog essays deal with Hopi history, religion and social organization as well as prehistoric, historic and contemporary Hopi arts.