A case study of select Illinois Community College board chair perspectives on their leadership role.

The leadership perspectives of three community college board chairs were examined in a multiple-case study. Qualitative data were collected and analyzed. The themes of facilitation, communication, information, participation, expectation, and collaboration emerged from the data. The author summarizes the chairs' perspectives and offers a guide to board chair leadership.

Introduction

Generally, leadership studies in higher education tend to focus on the role of the president or other administrators, and the leadership role of the chair has been largely ignored. However, in the past few years, a growing body of literature has recognized the leadership exhibited by the chair in setting the tone of board governance, in contributing to the effectiveness of the president and, ultimately, in ensuring the success of the institution.

   The quality of its leadership can make or break a board. Good
   governance requires sound leadership and is inhibited by weak
   leadership. Although an excellent board chair does not guarantee
   superior governance, a poor or inadequate one nearly always
   thwarts it. (Orlikoff, 2000, p. 24)

Ineffective leadership from the chair can create instability on the board of trustees. One of the criticisms of the trustees of public institutions by presidents is that too often they can be "fractionated and fractionalized" (Bailies, 1996, para. 14). A chair who is unable to form the board into a cohesive unit will not be able keep it attentive to the important governance functions of the institution. Without effective leadership from the chair, a board can easily become divided and distracted from the business of governance by seemingly insignificant issues.

The effectiveness of the president also depends, in part, on the leadership of the chair. The chair acts as the liaison between the board and the president (Orlikoff, 2000). In communicating with the board and the president, the chair gains insight into the likely reaction of the trustees to actions contemplated by the president (Ingram, 1993). In performing this function, the chair is directly involved in the effectiveness of the president by gauging the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the board without a formal proposal from the president. "Nothing is more critical to the president's effectiveness than the relationship of the board chairperson to the president" (Kauffman, 1993, p. 133). The chair and president working together as a team communicate a message of stability to the entire institution, and such teamwork aids the president in achieving his or her goals. In the ideal situation, the chair provides the president with dependable support, trustworthy advice, and even friendship (Ingram, 1993). The leadership of the chair is an integral factor in demonstrating support for the president, which enables the president to project the confidence needed to influence the direction of the institution.

The relationship between the chair and the president is one of the most important factors determining the success of the institution (Clos, 2000). The chair and the president are joined in a partnership, and they "must learn to dance together" (Chait, Holland, & Taylor, 1996, p. 123). The president must recognize the responsibilities and burdens of the chair in leading the board of trustees and in dealing with external constituencies. The chair must facilitate the leadership of the president within the institution and provide a bridge to understanding the board of trustees. To have a successful relationship, "neither can stray far from each other's gaze or proceed independently" (Chait et al., 1996, p. 123). Cooperation and collegiality are keys to a successful partnership.

The Role of the Chair

The board chair has been described as "the most important officer of the board" (Smith, 2000, p. 35), and the "first among equals" (Davis, 1992, p. 164). The position of the leader of the board distinguishes the chair from the other trustees, and the responsibilities associated with the position are significant. The chair has many roles to fill simultaneously (Martin, 1997), and these roles distinguish the chair from the other trustees. The chair has to perform the legal obligations outlined in board policies or state statutes, just as he or she has to bear the responsibility of being a team leader. Ingram (1993) states that the chair has four main responsibilities: to be knowledgeable about important issues affecting the college, to assess and orientate board members, to be the spokesperson for the board, and to be the conscience and disciplinarian of the board. The holistic approach for board leadership favored by John Carver (1990) stresses the role of the chair as a facilitator "responsible for the integrity of the board process" (p. 152), rather than as a power unto himself or herself. Smith (2000) offers a similar but more defined leadership role for the chair that includes "fostering teamwork and resolving problems, preside[ing] over meetings, represent[ing] the board, and work[ing] closely with the CEO" (p. 36). Smith's definition of the role of the chair includes aspects of leadership that are not found in the routine, mechanical, or official duties of the chair. According to Smith, a significant aspect of the chair's leadership role is focused on the use of interpersonal skills for teambuilding and problem solving.

A chair who encourages trustees to participate and who guides trustees through a learning process can create an effective leadership team. While the chair is the leader of the board and the president is the leader of the administration, the responsibility for team building can be shared by the chair and the president (Fisher, 1991). During the learning process, the chair must clearly demonstrate that the board and the president are a team; "because of the visibility of this leadership team, its behavior and effectiveness set the tone for the behavior of others at the college" (Boggs & Smith, 1997, p. 43). The chair and the president can work together as master teachers to provide new trustees with an effective guide to understand the complexities of the business of higher education (Martin, 1997). Team building can be a difficult task that consumes the "time, patience, understanding, respect, energy and commitment" of the chair and the president (Vaughan & Weisman, 1997, p. 45). The complexity of teambuilding creates additional issues concerning the boundaries of responsibility between the trustees and the administration. Sherman (1993) notes that some trustees are wary of assuming a more active leadership role for fear of interfering in the administration of the college. However, Gaskin (1997) believes that the professional expertise of individual trustees should be utilized to augment the strengths of the college. The chair must encourage trustees to take an active interest in the activities and processes of the college. A close and successful working relationship among the leadership team can be developed that allows the individual trustee to select his or her own level of involvement (Nielsen & Newton, 1997). The chair must strive to find an acceptable balance of authority that satisfies the trustees in the fulfillment of their role without unnecessary interference in the president's administration of the college. In accepting the position, the chair assumes a large role in developing the board, in facilitating the decision-making process, and in working with the president to develop the governance team.

Research Questions

The purpose of this study was to describe and explain the perspectives of community college board chairs on their leadership role. The major questions in this study focused on the perspective of the community college board chair on his or her leadership role and the variables that influence that perspective.

Methodology

A multiple-case study design was employed in this study because it was not the intention of this researcher to identify a single unusual or rare case. A multiple-case study design demonstrates "that each setting has a few properties that it shares with many others, some properties that it shares with some others, and some properties that it shares with no others" (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 29). The purpose of employing a multiple-case study design was not for the generalization of results, findings, or theory (Miles & Huberman, 1994) or for replication (Yin, 1994), but rather to enhance the qualitative nature of this study through the development of thick, rich, and detailed descriptions of the data derived from the cases involved in this study.

Participant Selection

In Illinois, the chair of the board of trustees of a community college is an elected official who has been selected by his or her fellow trustees to fulfill a statutory obligation and to serve the college in a leadership capacity. Three chairs were selected from the seven chairs originally recommended by the President and the Executive Director of the Illinois Community College Trustees Association. This study employed a combination of techniques identified by Patton (1990) as "snowballing or chain sampling" and "intensity sampling" (p. 182). The first round of selection, snowballing or chain sampling, is the identification of potential participants by the Illinois Community College Trustees Association. Patton describes this method as identifying interesting cases through the recommendation of others who know which cases have good quality participants for the study. The final selection method was based on intensity sampling. Intensity sampling identifies "information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon intensely, but not extremely" (p. 182). The identification of quality participants and information-rich cases provided the greatest opportunity to understand the perspectives of the community college chairs on their leadership role. Pseudonyms were used to shield the identity of the colleges and the participants in the study.

Data Collection

This researcher employed the following data collection methods recommended by Patton (1990) for qualitative studies: in-depth open-ended interviews, direct observation, and written document analysis. In addition, field notes and a reflective journal were kept during the study to provide a method of expression for the researcher's perspective and thoughts. The interviews, observations, and data collection were conducted over a six-month period in 2002.

In this study, three interviews were conducted with each chair. In addition, an individual interview with the president and one trustee from each institution was conducted. All interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed, and a copy was delivered to the participants with a request for verification of their responses. This researcher transcribed or checked each of the transcriptions for accuracy. Each transcript was reviewed a number of times and marked to identify potential subject areas in the development of themes. During the course of the interviews, this researcher found that the chairs were very conscious of the fact that the interviews were confidential. Each chair commented on the confidentiality issue during the interview in terms of a self-absolution for what they were about to reveal. One chair asked that the recorder be turned off at one point because the information revealed was so sensitive.

In this study, observation of the chairs was conducted at formal public board meetings. A nonparticipant observation technique was used. Observation of the chairs in nonformal settings was also experienced in this study. Field notes were taken during all observation sessions, and written documents that were made available during public meetings were collected for later analysis. The observations conducted during this study gave this researcher the opportunity to view the chairs in a setting where their actions could be recorded and later compared to the responses to interview questions. During this study, all of the observations, except one, were made at public meetings where an audience was present. In the one observation that did not include public attendance, this researcher was invited by a chair to sit in on a closed session of the board during a discussion of a personnel issue. This researcher's presence as an observer did not appear to induce or prohibit any particular behaviors at any of the meetings he attended during this study.

This researcher requested available written documents and audiovisual materials, if available, from each college for review in this study. The most useful documentary data collected during this study were the minutes of the monthly college board meetings and the local newspaper reports. These data served to highlight the controversial issues that had arisen at each college over the past year and also served as a tool to verify or refute other data. The other documentary data that were collected, such as the student newspaper, college catalogs, master plans and strategic plans, print advertisements, the college website, faculty materials and institutional research data, provided valuable background information.

In this study, field notes were taken by hand during observations and interviews to provide a written record of the event and to enhance the understanding of the data collected. Field notes of each interview and observation were later reviewed in conjunction with the related transcripts and documents so that the researcher could revisit the entire experience during the data analysis process. A reflective journal was kept to record the thoughts of the researcher during all phases of this study. The reflective journal was regularly reviewed along with the related transcripts, field notes, and documents during the data analysis process.

Data Analysis

This study utilized Creswell's (1998) framework for data analysis and representation. Creswell outlined six areas of data analysis and representation for a case study design:

(a) data managing: create and organize files for data;

(b) reading and memoing: read through text, make marginal notes, form initial codes;

(c) describing: describe the case and its contents;

(d) classifying: use categorical aggregation, establish patterns of categories;

(e) interpreting: use direct interpretation, develop naturalistic generalizations; and

(f) representing and visualizing: present narrative augmented by tables and figures. (p. 148-149)

All data accumulated in this study from observations, interviews, documents, field notes and the reflective journal were organized, presented, and analyzed under Creswell's framework. The data were collected, reviewed, and sorted by college. The data were constantly reviewed beginning with the interview and transcription process. The transcripts were marked to highlight and correlate common areas. The data were categorized by subject area and were developed into the themes. The themes that emerged from the data were identified and defined. A "pooled case comparison" (Merriam, 1998, p. 196) was utilized for cross-case analysis and interpreting and for presenting the findings.

My Role as Researcher

My interest in this subject is based on my experience as a community college board chair. As a board chair, I share the joy and the burden of the participants in this study. I recognize that my experience has created bias. I consistently sought to identify my bias during this study. My knowledge of the subject matter both benefited and burdened me as a researcher. I benefited because the chairs could speak in the community college jargon without stopping to define terms. Also, I felt that the chairs could relate to me knowing that I shared the same experience. I was burdened because the chairs discussed problems similar to those that I had faced. While I sympathized with the chairs, I refrained from judging or giving advice.

Credibility of the Study

The credibility of a study depends on three elements (Patton, 1990). Patton describes these elements as follows:

(a) rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high-quality data that are carefully analyzed, with attention to validity, reliability, and triangulation;

(b) the credibility of the researcher, which is dependent on training, experience, track record, status, and presentation of self; and

(c) philosophical belief in the phenomenological paradigm, that is, a fundamental appreciation of naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods, inductive analysis, and holistic thinking. (p. 461)

This study attempted to meet the requirements set by Patton. Firstly, rigor can be found in the very nature of this qualitative study because it required extensive fieldwork. Also, multiple methods of purposeful sampling were established to ensure that information-rich participants were included in this study. Attention was paid to validity and reliability through the copious use of direct quotations from the interviewees to provide a "true description of a given reality" (Janesick, 1998 p. 119). In addition, triangulation was provided by the use of multiple methods of data collection that included observations, interviews, document analysis, field notes and a reflective journal to determine that "we have it right" (Stake, 1995, p. 107). Secondly, the researcher received training in qualitative methods that included academic coursework and extensive interview and observation field experience in preparation for this study. Thirdly, the methodology of this study provided ample evidence of the researcher's appreciation for the qualitative method of inquiry and analysis.

The Chairs and the Colleges

Martha, the chair of the board of trustees of Washington Community College, is a retired teacher who has 27 years of experience in elementary education. She is married, is the mother of five children, and has two grandchildren. She holds an advanced degree in Environmental Studies. Martha has served over ten years as a trustee and has been chair for three years. Martha became a trustee because she wanted the perspective of a professional educator on the board. Martha's commitment to her community has a strong influence on her perspective. She is actively involved in environmental issues, and she became politically involved in the community through a local service organization.

Washington Community College serves a suburban and largely rural area. The campus is located in a rural area, accessible only from a two-lane highway. From the highway, the college can be seen in the distance, rising from the farm fields. The campus is comprised of five buildings that were constructed over a period of about 30 years. All of the buildings share a prairie style design with red brick walls and numerous windows. The buildings are connected to each other through a series of enclosed walkways that are respectful of the prairie style. The entire building complex is surrounded by parking lots that produce a shopping mall effect. The center of the complex is dominated by a student center, cafeteria, and a business conferencing center.

The college district serves a population of approximately 250,000 residents. One county dominates the district that serves nine principal communities and vast unincorporated areas. The socioeconomic levels in the district include a low-end immigrant population, a rapidly disappearing farming population, and a small, but extremely wealthy, population of country estate owners; the majority of the population is comprised of blue-collar and white-collar middle class families. The district experienced a significant population increase in the 1990s. The district population is overwhelmingly White, but it has recently experienced increases in its Hispanic population. In response to the rapid growth of the district, the college has expanded through land acquisitions and the construction of additional buildings. Since 1988, the district has supported the college by approving two tax increase referendums to finance the expansion. Washington Community College is a comprehensive college that provides traditional occupational training, degree-transfer programs, and noncredit programs that serve all ages.

The chair of the board of trustees of Adams Community College, Abigail, was born and raised in the college district. She attended a local high school and has taken some courses at the college. Abigail is the mother of four children. Her oldest child is finishing high school and preparing to attend Adams Community College. Abigail works full time as an office manager and is a volunteer for a community service organization. She has served on the board for five years. Abigail ran for the board because she wanted to be involved in education. She is concerned about the tremendous growth in the area and its impact on the college. Abigail believes that people should be involved in their community and volunteer their time rather than complaining that they have no voice in community matters.

Adams Community College serves an urban area, a suburban area, and a large rural area. The college has three campuses. The main campus is located within the boundaries of an urban area and is easily accessible by two major highways. All 11 buildings on campus are constructed of concrete and glass window walls. The buildings are positioned around a wide stream that runs through the campus. The rear of each building faces the water and provides a beautiful park-like view. In 1980, a downtown campus was opened. The campus is housed in a two-story landmark building that has been restored by the college. The downtown campus offers classes in limited program areas, but its large meeting rooms and banquet facility serve as a business conference center. In 1993, a new campus was opened in a growing suburban area. This campus has a one-story building that includes classrooms, labs, a learning resource center, and administration offices.

The college district has a population that exceeds 400,000 residents, and it covers an area that includes three full counties and portions of four other counties. The district includes a well-established urban area with large manufacturing and industrial plants that drive the local economy. In addition, the district includes many suburban communities that have experienced tremendous population growth in the last decade. Finally, the district includes a large rural area with a farm-based economy. The socioeconomic levels of the district range from urban welfare families to upper-middle class professionals. However, the majority of the population is blue-collar middle class. The college serves an overwhelmingly White population, but it has a significant historical Black population. Adams Community College is a comprehensive college that provides traditional occupational and degree-transfer programs. Recently, the college has added programs specifically designed to address the needs of its urban and rural communities. The college is currently experiencing financial strain due to the rapid growth of the district.

Peter, the chair of the board of trustees of Jefferson Community College," has served as a board member for more than 20 years. Peter is married and the father of six, and he has worked in a number of fields. He holds an undergraduate degree from a Catholic university and has done some graduate work. Peter has traveled extensively throughout the world. He has served as a local elected official. Peter believes that he can make an impact on the lives of others through community service. He believes that education is the best way for people to improve themselves. Peter is passionate about the community college system and its ability to help people raise the condition of their lives.

Jefferson Community College serves suburban and rural areas. It is a comprehensive college that provides traditional degree-transfer programs, and also emphasizes its technical and occupational programs. The single campus is located in a suburban area with access provided by a main thoroughfare. The campus has beautiful landscaping that minimizes attention on the parking lots and focuses attention on the main building. The campus buildings are comprised of a series of additions to the main building rather than stand-alone facilities. The main building is constructed of brown brick and features rounded design elements. The college houses a performing arts center and business conferencing facilities. A new educational building is scheduled to be built on campus in the near future.

The college has a district population of approximately 200,000 residents. The college district serves 19 densely populated suburban communities, and a large sparsely populated rural area. Some of the suburban communities are well established and Were once considered independent urban areas. However, growth from two larger adjacent urban areas has changed the common designation of the area to suburban. In the last decade, the district has changed from a majority White population to a majority Black and Hispanic population. In addition, the district has experienced minimal population growth, and the college's enrollment has decreased over the last few years. The district includes one of the poorest communities in the state, and it also includes one of the wealthiest and most affluent communities in the state. Accordingly, there is a tremendous disparity in the socioeconomic range of the district. The rural area served by the college is quite a distance from the campus and has been underserved by the college. Future plans for the college include better educational services for the rural area of the district; however, current financial constraints prevent any serious discussion of the plans.

Themes Identified in the Data

There were six themes identified in this study that emerged from the data. The themes are facilitation, communication, information, participation, expectation, and collaboration.

Facilitation

The major theme identified in the data was facilitation. Peter, the chair at Jefferson Community College, stated, "My view is that an effective chair is one who facilitates, and that is the important word, who facilitates great board dialogue. Good boards are good boards because of good chairs. Bad boards are because of bad chairs." While only Peter specifically spoke in terms of facilitation, each chair described his or her role as acting as a guide or a mediator to resolve issues between board members, the administration, or matters before the board. In her role as chair, Martha stated, "I feel more of a guide than anything else, and they [trustees] make their own decisions." Martha does not believe that her role is to tell trustees what to do, but rather to create the circumstances that enable them to make the best decisions possible. To Martha, the main responsibility of the chair is to guide the board. Abigail's nature as a mother was evident when she described the role of the chair as a mediator. She stated that she tries to be "some in-between person," or a "middle person" to mediate situations that arise and reach an acceptable conclusion. Abigail's mediation is an attempt to "let them [the trustees] know that yes, so-and-so trustee does have a difference of opinion on this matter, but that is what he or she is entitled to. We all aren't going to think alike."

The data demonstrated that each chair acknowledged the importance of a facilitation process: that through facilitation by the chair the board would be able to collaborate and achieve a certain amount of success, that the chair has to utilize good communication skills, that a satisfactory level of information should be provided to each board member, that board members should actively participate in college issues, and that the expectations of board members should be expressed openly and honestly. The foremost role of the chair is one of facilitation to ensure that the other themes identified in the data can be fully realized.

Communication

The data identified communication as a sub-theme of facilitation. Martha, the chair at Washington Community College, makes sure that each board member has the opportunity to communicate his or her opinion on an issue.

   I want to make sure that every single person has had the
   opportunity to say something. If they choose to say nothing they've
   had the opportunity. I can't control that. But, I think it's
   important for everyone if they know that that's your plan, if
   they've seen that time and time again that you will ask, they will
   formulate an opinion. By formulating opinions, sometimes the
   complaints fall to the background; there's less of a chance to
   complain.

In order to be successful as a facilitator, the chair must possess good communication skills. Each of the chairs stated that communication is a primary duty of the chair. Peter believes that the "goal as chair is to get dialogue from my colleagues to stimulate deliberation." He stated, "The biggest challenge in my approach is to get people to express themselves." He wants to "get their [the board's] opinions on the table and help them facilitate their discussion." Peter accomplishes this through creating "a safe, encouraging environment." He believes his method "can get more people to ... talk about their ideas." Abigail describes her role as "having to be in the middle of everyone with different phone calls" and "talking to board members." She tries to call all of the trustees when she thinks there is something important to decide. Abigail also tries "to do more listening" to understand the other trustees.

Whether they promote discussion at public board meetings, make private phone calls, or try to develop personal relationships, each chair is able to articulate a method of communication that is useful to that board chair in the performance of his or her role. The data demonstrate that communication plays a role in the relaying of information so that board members have a complete understanding of the issues, ensuring that board members are actively engaged in the process, and have an appreciation of the expectations of others so that they are prepared to collaborate in the performance of their duties.

Information

The chair at Adams Community College, Abigail, talked about the importance of board members feeling that the information they receive is accurate.

   Right now we have a few board members who are not happy
   with our attorney group.... They [the board members] have no
   legal background. That's why I am trying to get more information
   from them. I said, if you are not happy with the recommendation,
   why? Give me an exact reason why.... Actually, the
   complaint ... was he [a trustee] said that we weren't presenting
   all the facts on a special case. And I disagree with him because I
   was there. And I remember how they explained the facts. I talked
   to the president about this and he said that yes we were given all
   of the facts. It was right there in black and white, but his claim
   was that we weren't given all of the facts, so why were we doing
   what we were doing?

The theme of information emerged from the data as an issue that could develop into a point of contention and foster an atmosphere of mistrust and suspicion among the trustees and between the board and the administration. Peter looks upon his role as chair as the "funnel of information" between the administration and the board. He insists that the board members have the information they need to make decisions. Peter stated, "I am always looking for background information so that everyone gets informed." Peter believes that a chair should not allow a decision to be made by the board if "there was some background information that your board didn't have." Martha tries to act as a conduit of information to "get all the facts" and to "make sure everyone has the facts." Martha also perceives her role as a verifier of data; she feels that her duty includes the obligation to "check it [information] out" to make sure that it is reliable and complete so the board can make a good decision.

While this theme was prevalent in two of the three colleges, each chair believes that information should be available to the satisfaction of the individual trustee, and each notes that there were instances at their college where one or more board members believed that they did not receive all of the facts on an issue. Information is a crucial factor in the decision-making process of any deliberative body. The control of information can be a powerful tool in determining the outcome of an issue. The role of the chair is critical to the flow of information to the trustees. The chair must act as a facilitator to resolve an issue involving the flow of information so that participation is enhanced and expectations can be challenged. Through the use of good communication skills, the chair is aware of the comfort level of trustees with the amount of information they receive.

Participation

The theme of participation emerged from the data as an issue that could cause some board members to become frustrated with others who fail to fully engage in the process and hinder the progress of the college. Martha, the chair at Adams Community College, found that she has to be very attentive to the subtle signals sent by board members to determine their comfort with an issue and that she literally has to ask board members to participate, even if they have nothing to say at the moment.

   I'll say to the student trustee, "Do you have something else you'd
   wanted to add on that issue?" You kind of have to read the body
   language and see if they really want to ask something because
   there might be someone there who's really looking like they're
   thinking, thinking, thinking but for some reason they're not asking
   that question.... I try to get everybody. Last night we went
   around the board and I said, "Okay, we're going to get a consensus
   now. [Pat], you start, or whoever's sitting on that end, or on
   this end. [Joe], you start. What's your opinion? What do you
   think? What's your read? Okay, [Mary]." I won't let anybody
   skip, and if they skip I'll come back to them. Would you like to
   say something now? So everyone's had an opportunity to do their
   input. I will skip myself until the end. Someone called me on that
   once. I said, well I think it's good to get everyone else's input
   first. Then I'll give you my opinion. There's no secret here. I'll
   tell you what I think.

This theme was prevalent in the two colleges where the chairs noted that their board was in a transition out of a divisive period into a period of greater cooperation among board members. Peter stated that many times decisions were made when there were a few board members missing. He believes that the decision-making process is "weakened when there are ... people not there." Peter would like a board that is more active. He wants board members who are as dedicated to the institution as he is. "My self-identity is so engrained with [the college]; I live it." Abigail encourages board members to become involved in the activities of the college. She strives to "get together with each and every board member" and make sure that "everyone is involved." Abigail stated that she wanted the committee structure revised to increase board member involvement. She feels that "some board members were feeling almost left out" because they could not attend meetings, and as a result of her actions there is more board involvement.

The chairs at the colleges where participation was an issue indicated that they worked at creating a format that allowed each trustee to participate as much as possible. However, the chairs realized that they have no power to force a trustee member to participate. Participation by trustees is crucial to their understanding of the issues before the board. The lack of participation constricts discussion and retards the decision-making process. The chair, in the role of facilitator, has to communicate the frustrations of the active trustees to the nonactive trustees in order to stimulate their participation in board activities so that information continues to be exchanged and the expectations of all trustees are expressed.

Expectation

The theme of expectation emerged from the data as an issue that both pleased and frustrated each of the chairs in this study. Peter, the chair at Jefferson Community College, stated, "When the chairman is doing his job ... there is trust on the table." However, he also added, "Many times people hide their decisions in a smoke screen; then, it is the chairman's job to flush out where they are coming from." The chairs acknowledged that each board member brings his or her opinions and expertise to the board. The chairs noted that occupational diversity is one of the strengths of their boards. The chairs also found that, on occasion, they have to explore the motivations of board members in certain instances to reveal the true rationale for their stance on an issue. Martha failed to understand why some trustees were reluctant to reveal their true thoughts on an issue. She believes that some trustees allow other factors to interfere with the decision-making process. Martha found that sometimes the issue before the board is not the problem, but that the real problem lay "with something behind it."

The chairs were frustrated by the failure of trustees to be open and honest in the expression of their thoughts and convictions, a failure which causes the chairs to expend time and energy working to uncover and resolve the underlying problems. Abigail tries to find out what trustees are feeling about matters before the board. She stated that she "would first converse with the other trustees to see how they felt because they are in charge of the college." If she detected resistance to an issue, she "would get with them [trustees] ... and then get together with the president and say, 'We have a problem here.'"

For board members to express their expectations freely, they must feel secure in doing so. Therefore, the chair as facilitator has to create an environment where all board members can reveal their thoughts and convictions without fear of nonconstructive criticism. The chair creates this environment by communicating that all expectations should be considered in deliberations, by satisfying the need for information, and by demonstrating appreciation for active participation.

Collaboration

The theme of collaboration emerged from the data as a state that the board should strive for in the deliberation of issues. Abigail, the chair at Adams Community College, believes that the entire board has to come together to make a decision. She noted the importance of reaching a collective decision: "My vote does not count if it's all by itself. It's the ... board as a whole. " Martha also noted the importance of having the board work together when she stated:

   What's nice about a board is you have seven individuals ... who
   bring with them an expertise in each field.... So, I think what's
   nice is not one of us is as smart as all of us together. So, you're
   able to bounce ideas off of each other.

Peter added, "I believe in the wisdom of the group. It's the great thing of what happens here, the wisdom of a group. There is a wisdom there. It's beyond me, and it's beyond any individual." The theme of collaboration was indicated at all three colleges, but only by the chairs and the presidents. Since the chairs and presidents are deemed to be primarily responsible for the institution and work closely together, it seems consistent that they should be concerned about how the board reaches decisions. However, it is surprising that the issue did not arise with trustees who are also entrusted by the community with the welfare of the college.

Collaboration is a goal that the board can achieve in the process of decision-making. Collaboration is the result of the facilitation by the chair. Collaboration by the board can be attained when the chair becomes a facilitator of the board process and when good communication skills provides necessary information, encourages active participation, and creates an environment where true expectations can be expressed.

Impact of this Study on Leadership Theory

As a foundation for this study, literature in the field of organizational management, literature about leadership from the 20th century to the present, and literature on the role of the chair were reviewed. The literature, in some cases, was consistent with the findings of this study. This study was not based in any one theory, and, ultimately, a number of theories from different philosophical traditions contributed elements that supported the findings of this study.

Many of the themes that emerged from this study are consistent with Human Relations Theory and Behaviorist Theory. Theorists such as Mary Parker Follett, Douglas McGregor, and Rensis Likert understood that the human factor has to be addressed in the practice of leadership and that authority alone is insufficient as an organizational management or leadership model. Mary Parker Follett acknowledged the importance of the reliance on authority of scientific management theorists, but she also recognized the significant contributions made by the human component. Follett viewed incorporating the human element as an integral part of the success of the organizational process.

   You may bring together all the parts of a machine, but you do not
   have the machine until they are properly related. The chief task of
   organization is how to relate the parts so that you have a working
   unit; then you get effective participation. (Follett, 1927/1942b,
   p. 212)

In this statement, Follett acknowledged that although all components may be present, it requires effort on the part of the leader to fit the parts together. Here, the theme of facilitation as described in the study is closely related to Follett's concepts. A board chair knows that he or she must engage in facilitation to have the college function properly. So, too, the themes of participation, communication, information, and collaboration, as identified in the study, can be found in Follett's four fundamental principles of organization: evoking, interacting, integrating and emerging (Follett, 1927/1942a). The theme of participation is easily recognized in the principle of evoking, whereas the themes of communication and information can be inferred from the principle of interacting. The theme of collaboration can be found in the principles of integration and emerging. The theme that has not been identified in the work of Follett is expectation, but it can be identified in the work of other theorists.

The theme of expectation can be found in Behaviorist Theory. Douglas McGregor (1960) views leadership as a relationship that involves four variables. The four variables are the leader, followers, the organization, and the social, economic, and political environment. Under McGregor's theory, leadership is not based in any one individual, but rather it is constantly changing subject to the interaction of the four variables. Rensis Likert (1961) also believes that leadership needs to be sensitive to the thoughts and convictions of other individuals.

   The leadership and other processes of the organization must be
   such as to ensure a maximum probability that in all interactions
   and all relationships with the organization each member will, in
   light of his background, values, and expectations, view the
   experience as supportive and one which builds and maintains his
   sense of personal worth and importance. (p. 103)

Here, expectation is fully acknowledged as an important factor to be considered in the practice of leadership. McGregor and Likert realize that for a leader, like a board chair, to be effective he or she must not only be knowledgeable but must also understand the expectations of the individuals involved in the process.

The themes identified in this study are consistent with Contemporary Theory, such as the works of James McGregor Burns and Edgar Schein. Burns (1978) introduced the transformational theory of leadership. Burns also writes about the higher calling of leadership when compared to management.

   Some define leadership as leaders making followers do what
   followers would not otherwise do, or as leaders making followers
   do what the leaders want them to do; I define leadership as leaders
   inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the
   values and the motivations-the wants and needs, the aspirations
   and expectations-of both leaders and followers. And the genius
   of leadership lies in the manner in which leaders see and act on
   their own and their followers' values and motivations. (p. 19)

The leadership theory proposed by Burns is based on the relationship and interaction between the leader and the follower. Under transformational theory, the leader and the follower may possess their own motivations for the interaction, but together they realize a common goal and are changed by the process. The change, or transformation, in the participants is found in the unity of purpose that raises the goal beyond individual satisfaction to a higher level. The theme identified in this study that is consistent with transformational theory is collaboration. Collaboration cannot be achieved without the board members reaching a consensus and perhaps giving up something of themselves and changing in the process. Collaboration also assumes that the other themes identified in the study have been satisfied, because collaboration cannot be realized without facilitation, communication, information, participation, and expectation.

Edgar Schein (1985) believes that "much of what is mysterious about leadership becomes clearer if we separate leadership from management and link leadership specifically to creating and changing culture" (p. xi). Schein provides a list of skills required for the leader who can "operate from within" to change culture (p. 322). Firstly, the leader must understand the positive and negative aspects of the culture. Secondly, the leader must possess the motivation to change the culture. Thirdly, the leader must have the strength to withstand the emotional turmoil that change brings. Fourthly, the leader must possess the ability to offer and sell a new vision to the organization to overcome existing cultural assumptions. Fifthly, the leader must encourage meaningful participation in the process of cultural change. And, finally, the leader must delve into the culture to understand its fundamental basis in order to create effective cultural change.

The themes identified in this study are consistent with Schein's list of skills. To illustrate, the skills identified by Schein, namely, understanding the positive and negative aspects of the culture, possessing the motivation to change, and having the strength to withstand the problems associated with change, are all aspects of facilitation. The skill described by Schein as understanding the positive and negative aspects of the culture is analogous to the chairs' problem of revealing the expectations or thoughts and convictions of board members on an issue. The themes of communication and information identified in the study closely align to two of Schein's skills, namely, the ability to offer and sell a new vision and participation in encouraging meaningful participation. Finally, the theme of collaboration corresponds to the skill Schein recognized as achieving successful change in the culture. Schein's list demonstrates the close association of the themes and their interplay with each other.

The themes of this study also corroborate the theoretical constructs articulated by Robert Greenleaf and Thomas Sergiovanni. The themes of facilitation and collaboration are particularly relevant to the work of these two theorists on educational leadership. Greenleaf (1977) set the tone for leadership theory in education by addressing the nature of leadership as individual service to others developed out of an internal desire for caring about others and through leading by example.

   A new moral principle is emerging which holds that the only
   authority deserving of one's allegiance is that which is freely and
   knowingly granted by the led to the leader in response to, and in
   proportion to, the clearly evident servant stature of the leader.
   Those who choose to follow this principle will not casually accept
   the authority of existing institutions. Rather, they will freely
   respond only to individuals who are chosen as leaders because
   they are proven and trusted as servants. To the extent that this
   principle prevails in the future, the only truly viable
   institutions will be those that are predominately servant-led. (p.
   10)

Greenleaf suggests that the concept of both the servant and the leader can be found in the same individual. The servant, whether a leader or a follower, "is always searching, listening, expecting that a better wheel for these times is in the making" (p. 9). In the servant leadership model, the role of the chair finds a home. One of the first acts of a newly elected board of trustees is the election of board officers. The board members "freely and knowingly" (p. 10) elect one of their own self-motivated members to become chair and serve them as their leader. Of particular significance, the main theme identified in the data, facilitation, is consistent with servant leadership. Service to others is the basis of facilitation. Through facilitation the chair is able to serve others and balance the interplay of the other themes by communicating information, encouraging participation, and revealing expectations to realize collaboration on issues before the board.

Thomas Sergiovanni (1992) criticizes traditional leadership theory for presenting "leadership as behavior rather than action, as something psychological rather than spiritual, as having to do with persons rather than ideas" (p. 3). Sergiovanni (1994) also focuses on the human need for meaning and significance in stating that "the need for community was universal" (p. xiii). Sergiovanni's idea of community is based on the individual's commitment to shared values, growing and learning with others, and striving for validation of purpose. In the case of the community college, the board members have a particularly potent role in the creation and maintenance of the institutional community's climate and culture. The community's climate and culture depends, to a great extent, on whether the board is able to realize collaboration to resolve issues rather than deal with distractions. Collaboration by the board is essential to achieve the positive potential associated with an organizational community. As evidenced in this study, collaboration can only be achieved after other themes identified in the data--information, participation, and expectation--have been satisfied through facilitation and communication by the chair.

The review of the literature of governing boards of Higher Education demonstrates a focus on the mechanical, legal, and financial responsibilities of the board member. The Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges, in a publication by Richard Ingram (1997), lists ten responsibilities of the trustees of public institutions of higher learning that are dedicated to management of the institution rather than leadership for the institution. Cindra Smith (2000) "distilled" a list of trustee responsibilities from the work of others and her own observations (p. 17). Smith's list of trustee responsibilities adds a leadership component. The nonmanagerial responsibilities Smith added to her list include acting as a unit, representing the common good, creating a positive climate, and leading as a thoughtful and educated team. In noting that "boards are more than another layer of administration" (p. 17), Smith defines trustee responsibilities in terms of leaders rather than in terms of functionaries.

The literature written specifically for board members and chairs provides important information about the duties and responsibilities of board membership. Some of these writers acknowledge the leadership capacity as well as the managerial duties of board members. In the context of this literature, facilitation is the only relevant theme: Carver (1990) specifically mentions facilitation, and Smith (2000) mentions teamwork. The authors in this field have written these texts for a certain purpose and audience. Unlike authors in organizational management and leadership theory, these authors intentionally focus more on duties and responsibilities to educate boards on the serious nature of the position. However, while creating a list of the attributes of an ideal board is an important undertaking, there is a significant need to provide board members and chairs with a guide, a plan, or a methodology by which the ideal board can be attained.

This study furthers the literature in the field of leadership by providing insight into the leadership processes that develop in an egalitarian relationship. In the case of an elected board of trustees, there is no actual or implied authority that can be invoked to force or prevent action. The seven individuals that comprise an elected board of trustees are responsible only to the community: This study offers guidance in the practice of leadership that can be applied in situations where all parties have equal decision-making authority. While the concepts of transformational leadership and servant leadership provide a theoretical basis for the granting of leadership to an individual by others, they operate in fictional settings. For example, business and educational settings that apply transformational leadership and servant leadership also maintain the safety mechanisms found in the chain of command that can be activated as a fail-safe, thereby consciously or unconsciously suppressing the full potential of the expression reflected in these concepts. Every individual in a business or educational organization recognizes the authority of the chain of command, and it cannot be dismissed as an insignificant factor in the decision-making process. Alternatively, an elected board of trustees operates without a chain of command or a fail-safe mechanism; therefore a decision must be made that reflects the best collaborative efforts of the board achieved through the facilitation of the chair. The findings of this study provide insight into the perspectives of the community college board chair and offer guidance in the practice of leadership in an egalitarian setting.

Strengths and Limitations of this Study

The strength of this study can be found in its identification of themes that board chairs utilize to enhance their ability to assume a true leadership position rather than simply fulfilling a titular role. The limitation of this study can be found in the small number of chairs that were included in this study. Although an effort was made to select a representative sample of the community college system, the problems, situations, and conditions in each situation are particular to that college and the individuals involved. Hopefully, the findings of this study can be used generally to assist chairs in their leadership role. Gender did not appear to be a factor in this study, as two of the three chair participants were female and nine out of 21 trustees at the colleges were female. At one participating college, females comprised the majority of the board of trustees. Race did not emerge as an issue; however, there was limited minority participation in this study. Only one of the nine participants in the interviews belonged to a minority group. The low participation rate of minorities in this study is reflective of the fact that there was only one minority trustee out of the 21 trustees at the colleges that participated in this study.

Conclusions

This study illustrates the important function that the chair plays in the success of a community college. The chair provides stability and support for the internal constituencies of administration, faculty, staff, and students. The chair also provides a vital link in sending the college's message to the external community. However, the most important role of the chair is to work with the board of trustees and the administration to secure the best future for the institution.

The chair can become a successful leader by embracing the role of a facilitator. By acting as a facilitator, guide, or mediator, the chair may avoid discord among the trustees and also prevent future difficulties by keeping the board focused on its responsibilities. The chair has to use his or her skills as a communicator to understand each trustee and the president. Communication requires action by the chair not only to listen to those who speak, but also to seek out the opinion of those who are silent. The chair has to counsel the president on the timing and presentation of information for the board. The dissemination of information to the board, its quality, and its quantity are sensitive issues. The chair has to find the appropriate balance between satisfying the board's demand for information and unnecessary interference with the president's administration. The chair must encourage trustees to become active not only in college activities, but also in local, state, and national community college associations. A trustee's level of participation in the life of the college is determined by many factors. It is the duty of the chair to find a way to accommodate those who want to participate and to stimulate those whose participation is lacking. The chair has to know each trustee and must be able to predict his or her likely reaction to an issue. On occasion, the chair has to explore the expectations of trustees to discover and to resolve underlying issues. Finally, the chair has to blend personalities and ideas together to create a collaborative decision-making body that will serve in the best interests of the college. This study demonstrates that the leadership role of the chair is a tremendous responsibility that, when artfully performed, can yield incredible success for the college and personal satisfaction for the chair.

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John Donahue is the chair of the board of trustees at Moraine Valley Community College in Palos Hills, CA. [e-mail]