A Profile of Gifted Individuals with Autism: The Twice-Exceptional Learner.

According to a Fact Sheet generated by the U.S Office of Gifted and Talented, it has been estimated that up to 300,000 children in the United States are both gifted and learning disabled (Clark, 1992). It is also known that 25 to 30% of the 300,000 or more persons with autism in America are not mentally retarded, and are evaluated to have average to above average intelligence (Donnelly & Altman, 1994; Rimland, 1978). While 10% of the entire population with autism displays savant behaviors, only 1% might be characterized as being extraordinary, and these "autistic savants" are generally found to be among those learners whose intelligence is in the normal or above normal range (Rimland, 1978; Young & Nettlebeck, 1995). However, with or without savant brilliance, high-functioning individuals with autism can demonstrate a range of gifts (i.e., intellectual, musical, artistic, and visual) similar to those displayed by learners who meet gifted criteria.

Increasingly, researchers are becoming aware that these high-functioning individuals with autism are also identified as gifted and talented (Donnelly & Altman, 1994; Rimland, 1995). As a result, there is more interest in the special abilities that coexist within the two populations. Individuals with autism often possess a unique mixture of talents and deficits, and "sometimes their behaviors differ from those of gifted populations only by degree" (Cash, in press). Temple Grandin (1995), a gifted individual with autism and a researcher in her own right, believes that "People labeled autistic have an extreme form of traits found in normal people" (p. 176). Her research also indicates that the genes that cause schizophrenia, manic depression, and autism "may confer advantages in a milder form" (p. 187). In citing work done on autism by Robin Clark in 1993 she explains:

   The disorder may occur if a person receives too big a dose of genetic
   traits which are only beneficial in smaller amounts. For example, a slight
   tendency to fixate on a single subject can enable a person to focus and
   accomplish a great deal, whereas a stronger tendency to fixate prevents
   normal social interaction (Grandin, 1995, p. 177).

She concludes that "the genetic traits that can cause severe disabilities can also provide the giftedness and genius that has produced some of the world's greatest art and scientific discoveries" (Grandin, 1995, p. 187).

To understand and bring awareness to this twice-exceptional population, this article presents autistic classifications and identifies the unique traits sometimes held in common by individuals who are both gifted and autistic. Biographical sketches are provided of these learners who are sometimes targeted for their strengths and sometimes for their weaknesses. In addition, the impact of being both gifted and autistic is explored and current and effective educational opportunities in mainstreamed settings are briefly reviewed. Continued research is recommended to help meet the idiosyncratic needs of these dual-labeled learners, both as children and as adults.

Autism: The Disorder

Autism, an enigmatic physical disorder, is characterized by a large number of symptoms that vary in kind and severity with each individual. The following definition is offered by the Autism Society of America:

   Autism is a severely incapacitating life-long developmental disability that
   typically appears during the first three years of life. The result of a
   neurological disorder that affects functioning of the brain, autism and its
   behavioral symptoms occur in approximately fifteen out of every 10,000
   births. Autism is four times more common in boys than girls. It has been
   found throughout the world in families of all racial, ethnic, and social
   backgrounds. No known factors in the psychological environment of a child
   have been shown to cause autism (in Gerlach, 1996, p. 1).

Types of Autism

According to the American Psychiatric Association's Fourth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, 1994), autism is only one subclass of "Pervasive Developmental Disorders" (PDD), and is connected to 12 diagnostic criteria. However, the view that autism is a pervasive disorder, rather than a social/sensory/ cognitive one, does not have consensus (Gerlach, 1996) and researchers such as Rimland (1978; 1993) and Grandin (1991; 1995) continue to place the disorder in flexible categories. According to Grandin (1995), although some consider the categories to be separate entities, "others believe that they lie on an autistic continuum and there is no definite distinction between them" (p. 46). Rimland (1993) takes the argument a step further and concludes that the PDD label is inappropriate and confusing, and should be abandoned. Despite the controversy, autism continues to be categorized largely based upon behavioral manifestations. Standard classifications follow.

Asperger Syndrome In this type of autism, children have normal or near normal development until the age of 18 months, followed by a period of regression (Grandin, 1991). The syndrome is characterized by poor motor coordination, late mobility, formal speech with pseudo-adult qualities expressed in a monotone voice, strong attachments to places, depression, echolalic speech, routinized obsessive-compulsive behaviors, difficulty in relating to people, poor eye contact, a lack of empathy for others, and poor intuition. Despite these weaknesses, individuals often demonstrate strong islets of ability, normal sensory responses, and near normal or average intelligence. They may also engage in untraditional and unorthodox cognitions which can result in creative products (Cash, in press).

Kanner-type This type of autism, which is sometimes called Early Infantile Autism or Classic Autism, is characterized by the early onset of illness (usually before the first year), a lack of eye contact, late speech, a paucity of interaction with people, stereotyped body movements (repetitive behaviors), a lack of proper pronoun usage (the substitution of you for I), hyperplexic reading, and possible mental retardation (Kanner, 1971). Individuals do display normal mobility, along with relatively strong thinking and visual patterns.

Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDDNOS) This classification is used when the defining criteria of autism, such as onset before the age of 3, is not met. Sometimes PDDNOS is diagnosed when the condition appears atypical, inconsistent, and less severe (Gerlach, 1996). It is usually more aligned to Kanner type autism than Asperger Syndrome. Further, it is associated with aberrant language development, early onset, difficulties with social relationships, and stereotyped and peculiar motor behaviors.

Regressive/Epileptic type Temple Grandin (1991) categorizes high-functioning individuals with autism under a combined Kanner/Asperger classification due to the similarities. At the same time she labels autistic individuals who are particularly low-functioning as being Regressive/Epileptic. This type of autism is characterized by the absence of receptive speech (the inability to understand others), modality mixing, coordination difficulties, epileptic seizures, abnormal EEG readings (electroencephalograph), an undersized brain stem, mental retardation, and high anxiety levels. Surprisingly, near normal thinking and emotional patterns may occasionally be evidenced by these individuals.

Connections

Shared Behaviors

Autism occurs on a continuum from mild to severe, each case being different. The range of intelligence extends from mentally challenged to highly gifted and sometimes includes savant abilities (Rutter & Schopler, 1987). Similarly, giftedness often progresses along a continuum from mildly gifted through exceptionally gifted with possible genius capabilities. It is not surprising, then, that the two populations are matched at several points (Cash, in press). However, the research of Donnelly & Altman (1994) makes it clear that while strengths and weaknesses of both groups may overlap, the sensory, verbal, and social perception difficulties of the twice-exceptional gifted/autistic population are generally neurologically associated and more severe.

According to Rimland (1978), it is often difficult if not impossible, to distinguish autism from true genius at an early age. He believes that until the symptoms of the disorder surface, (e.g., bizarre behaviors and social disconnectedness) all that is apparent are the extreme talents. Isabelle Rapin, a neurologist specializing in autism, has analyzed many of the overlapping behaviors associated with these populations and, as a result of her research, questions where autism ends, and oddness begins (Sacks, 1993). The following behaviors profile the shared traits of this twice-exceptional population and provide insights into these complex individuals.

Focusing Some gifted learners are described as working with "autistic singularity" (Cash, in press). Individuals with autism, often preoccupied, appear compelled to intensely focus on activities, behaviors, and objects. Yewchuck (1987) commented that "Their minds take off on journeys that are beyond their control" (p. 221). Although individuals with autism may be gifted in their abilities to extrapolate a wide spectrum of information from any given stimulus, others without the disorder may be more selective, filtering out and discarding subtle sources of stimuli (Cesaroni & Garber, 1991). Similarly, Rimland (1978) has commented on the benefits of gifted learners being able to acutely concentrate: "The ability to narrow attention to a tight focus and hold it there until the mind absorbs and comprehends the topic is a crucial requirement for students of law, mathematics, accounting, medicine and other professions" (p. 79).

Negative Behaviors Lists of negative attributes describing gifted students can run parallel to those charactering autistic learners; they sometimes differ only in their intensity (Donnelly & Airman, 1994). On the basis of clinical observations, as well as findings reported by researchers such as Grandin (1995), Rimland (1978), and Silverman (1993a), mutual traits have been ascribed to both populations. Both groups may be discourteous, argumentative, stubborn, uncooperative, egocentric, indifferent to conventions of socialization and dress, and resistant to teacher domination. In addition, gifted individuals and those with autism are also similar in that they may have a compulsive preoccupation with words, ideas, numbers and foods; perfectionist personalities; a rigid fascination with an interest; a need for precision; intellectual rigidity; a lack of social skills; the need to monopolize conversations and situations; the ability to concretely visualize models and systems; an intense need for stimulation; difficulties in conforming to the thinking of others; and a tendency toward introversion.

Visual Thinking Individuals with autism have been known to be visual thinkers (Grandin, 1995; Rimland, 1978): According to Grandin (1995), "Interviews with autistic adults who have good speech and are able to articulate their thought processes indicate that most of them also think in visual images" (p. 25). She considers the ability of many individuals with autism to excel in special skills, evidenced by solving difficult jig-saw puzzles, quickly finding their way around a city, and memorizing large amounts of data, to be indicative of their visual acuity. Grandin maintains her autistic tendency of seeing pictures of nouns in great detail, made apparent in the title of her 1995 biography Thinking in Pictures: and other reports from my life with autism.

Additionally, eminent individuals such as Albert Einstein were known to predominate their thinking with visual impressions. Likewise, Thomas Locker, the artist and illustrator/writer of children's books, is another example of a gifted, visual thinker (Cash, in press).

Friendships A complaint of highly precocious individuals is that they have few friends or intellectual peers (Galbraith, 1985). According to Silverman (1993c), the research is paradoxical as findings reveal that many gifted learners are socially and emotionally well adjusted while clinical experience suggests that they may display great loneliness and inner conflicts. Further, there is evidence that "exceptionally gifted children experience greater difficulties with social adjustment than their more moderately able peers" (p. 294). Other researchers have also stated that exceptionally high intelligence learners are prone to poor social adjustment (Clark, 1992; Morelock & Feldman, 1991). Hollingworth's research suggests that they have a difficult time finding satisfying companionship on an emotional or intellectual level (in Morelock & Feldman, 1991).

In a similar fashion, gifted individuals with autism may experience comparable isolation. Their lack of social skills and connectedness, along with their rigidity and affinity to monopolize situations, are major contributors to their social separateness (Donnelly & Altman, 1994). In their biographies of their experiences with autism, both Grandin (1992 and 1995) and Williams (1992) recall feeling lonely and having difficulties in making associations. Williams recounts, with great pain, seeking multiple friendships unsuccessfully as a child, because no one could understand her. Grandin was also limited in her relationships, and was successful in making friends primarily with those who shared her interests about animals.

Hyper-Vigilant Senses Gifted learners are known for their keen senses. Galton's tests in the 1800s, for example, uncovered giftedness by measuring visual, auditory, and tactile acuity in individuals (Colangelo & Davis, 1991). Likewise, Kanner's original descriptions of 11 autistic subjects in 1943 emphasized these individuals' acute senses. Dabrowski's theory of "overexcitabilities" describes gifted individuals' acute sensory awareness and heightened capacity to respond to stimuli due to their hyper-sensitive nervous systems (Silverman, 1993d). The five overexcitabilities include behaviors such as tics and impulsiveness, dreaming in color, acute analytical thinking, anxiousness, and hyper-reactions along with food allergies. It is obvious that the overexcitabilities and their associated behaviors may apply to high-functioning learners with autism as well as to individuals who are gifted.

Family Loading Studies investigating the families of both autistic and gifted individuals indicate that the history often includes relatives displaying great genius. Perhaps surprisingly, the lineage sometimes reveals the existence of various emotional and mental handicaps including autism, schizophrenia, manic-depression, and dyslexia (Donnelly & Altman, 1994; Grandin, 1995; Kanner, 1971; Narayan, Moyes, & Wolff, 1990; Rimland, 1964). Rimland (1964) reported that Kanner' s original 1943 case studies of children with autism revealed that their parents (both male and female) were generally highly educated, held professional degrees, and were mentioned in "Who's Who" or had relatives who were. This family link caused early researchers to erroneously conclude that a possible etiology of the disorder was associated with parents being non-nurturing and preoccupied with their own careers.

Dating back to Galton in 1869, gifted individuals were often viewed as coming from "succeeding generations of distinguished families" (Colangelo & Davis, 1991, p. 6). Today, researchers support the theory that the parents of highly able students are frequently gifted in some form as well, although they may have difficulty dealing with this concept (Silverman, 1993b; Tolan, 1992).

According to Grandin (1991), it is well documented that "autistic traits often show up in a mild degree in the parents, siblings, and close relatives of an autistic child" (p. 26). The family history of Temple Grandin lends support to this theory as many members within her immediate and extended family display both autistic and gifted traits (Cash, in press). Similarly, Albert Einstein's family lineage indicates a high incidence of musical talent, autism, dyslexia, food allergies, high intellectual aptitude, and depression. (Grandin, 1991). In fact, Temple Grandin relates that during a conversation with Einstein's second cousin, she revealed that she had one musically gifted, autistic child and one intellectually gifted offspring (Cash, in press).

Rimland (1978), noted that a disproportionate number of autistic learners have family members with high intellect and occupational attainment. He concluded:

   Many seem to have inherited the neurological make-up that permits them to
   zero in on whatever attracted their attention. But these children lack the
   capacity to `zero out', to expand their focus and comprehend the context of
   whatever they are focusing on (p. 80).

Biographical Sketches

The Twice-Exceptional Learner

There is an emerging recognition that some of the most able learners and scholars sometimes display disabling and even autistic qualities (Bireley, 1994; Grandin, 1995; Sacks, 1993; Narayan et al., 1990). Further, an increasing number of individuals with autism are identified as also being gifted (Donnelly &Altman, 1994; Grandin, 1995). Case studies of gifted individuals with autism offer evidence of how these twice-exceptional learners cope. The following accounts provide insights into the lives of these individuals and their private challenges, and document how they manage to integrate their strengths and weaknesses.

Temple Grandin Diagnosed with classical autism, Grandin (1995) believes that her motivation and methodical drive to contribute to the world are factors responsible for her success as an adult. Unlike Temple, few individuals with autism, even high-functioning ones, earn a Ph.D. or achieve the rank of professor. However, her prognosis appeared very different at the age of two when she was diagnosed as being deaf and brain damaged, and five years later, in the early 1950s, when she was labeled as suffering from Classic Infantile Autism (Grandin & Scariano, 1986). Temple's autism was characterized by her hyper-vigilant senses; stereotyped behaviors (e.g., chewing on paper, dribbling sand through her fingers, and closing and opening doors); and asocial behaviors (e.g., refusing to be held and biting others). As part of the private tutoring, schooling, and behavior modification regimen devised for her by her mother, she was individually tested in elementary school; at the age of eight, her intelligence level was measured at 137.

With the support of parents, teachers, and counselors, along with her own determination, she was able to channel her autistic energies, overexcitabilities, passions, and preservations into creating useful designs for animals and developing a successful career. No doubt her strong gifts, such as her drafting abilities, artistic skills, perfect pitch, extraordinary visual thinking skills, sensory awareness, and high energy levels also contributed to her successful transition from a dependent individual with autism to a gifted researcher.

Donna Williams Now a university graduate and an author, Williams (1992) displays a variety of autistic behaviors such as strong expressive language mixed with weak receptive skills due to sensory jumbling. Her gifts as a child were at best mercurial and inconsistent. In her autobiography, she provides evidence of being a gifted reader, a strong speller, talented in music, a creative writer, and capable of intense focus and high grades in areas that held her interest. By her own accounts, she explains that while she could teach herself anything to perfection, she could frequently not be taught by others (Williams, 1992). By comparison to her strengths, her handwriting was poor, her math skills erratic, and her understanding of other people's language confused. Because of her perplexing strengths and weaknesses, she spent time in and out of schools and classes for special needs students.

In her autobiographical accounts, Williams (1992) further explained how, as a child, she would withdraw into a hypnotic state similar to a drug induced state where she could feel in touch with her true nature. Her mind would fill with colors, rhythms, and sensations. By comparison, being in the normal world was hard and often painful. She had to battle to remain alert, and it drained her of her energy. However, with great effort and motivation she rallied her strengths in an attempt to sustain her real world connection.

Jim Cesaroni & Garber (1991) recount the story of Jim, a 27 year-old high-functioning individual with autism, whose condition has been characterized by hyper-vigilant senses and sensory mixing (his sound can come in as flashing lights), poor social relatedness and eye contact, stereotyped body movements, erratic language development, and a strong attachment to objects. Jim explains that the breaking of a favorite piece of furniture could be as devastating as the loss of a friend. Nevertheless, he is described as having an exceptional, perhaps eidetic memory, and has written an impressive variety of essays and poems. Despite his impaired behaviors, "He is currently completing graduate studies in developmental psychology" (Cesaroni & Garber, 1991, p.304).

Jim, like Temple Grandin and Donna Williams, puts forth great effort to fit all the pieces of his past and present background together; he feels it hurts to try to be normal. This twice-exceptional individual is very reflective and is annoyed that people misjudge his lack of ability to properly read social cues as his not having empathy. He states he becomes angry when "someone who has much better inherent communication abilities than I do but who has not even taken a close look at my perspective to notice the enormity of the chasm between us tells me that my failure to understand is because I lack empathy" (p. 311).

TR A recent case study about TR, a 12 year-old male, autistic savant who was diagnosed with early infantile autism, was researched by Young & Nettlebeck (1995). TR's prodigious musical ability, which had no formal training, was apparent by the age of four. It includes perfect pitch, the ability to sight read and provide harmonic accompaniment, improvisation skills, and sophisticated chord formation. Although his IQ subtest scores as measured by the WISC-R are inconsistent, falling between 98 and 145, this range is considered to be between average and gifted. He also demonstrates exceptional abilities in mathematics and chess, having won national and international competitions in both.

TR has excellent concentration and visual acuity. Although his decoding skills in reading are high, his comprehension is relatively low. Other traits connected to his autism include repetitive speech; poor eye contact and social awareness; hyper-sensitivity to sound; and "ritualistic behaviors including lining things up, finger-tapping, inappropriate smelling, touching noses, resistance to change, head banging, and drawing things that involve lines - like telegraph poles ... and musical notation" (Young & Nettlebeck, 1995, p. 234).

TR's parents, whose first language is Chinese, are fluent in English (TR also understands Chinese). They are described by Young and Nettlebeck as supportive, talented parents, who themselves would fit the typical family lineage associated with many individuals with autism; they are highly intelligent and probably gifted in their own right. The mother has a BA in mathematics and the father is a physician. Both of the other male siblings are identified as gifted in math and general aptitudes, and display strengths in music. Despite the support given to TR by his family and the additional instruction provided in the areas of his interests, he displays little evidence of affect, joy, or emotional involvement. His future ability to function independently as a contributing adult cannot be predicted at this time.

Kanner's Original 11 The 1973 reinvestigation of the 11 autistic individuals that Kanner originally studied as children in 1943 (Kanner, 1971) gives testimony to the gifted abilities which they demonstrated at an early age, and the promise that was largely unfulfilled. Generally, these children displayed enviable gifts including encyclopedic knowledge, a fascination with numbers, exceptional musical talents, mechanical ability, amazing memories, excellent puzzle ability, exceptional balance, and advanced visual memory and thinking. Unfortunately, without early intervention and individualized care, their negative autistic behaviors - lack of communication and social relatedness, poor receptive and expressive speech, stereotyped behaviors, and hyper-sensory awareness - in almost all of the cases overpowered their gifts. Most of the 11 children were institutionalized, and only two become productive adults.

Eminent Individuals Researchers have frequently commented on individuals with exceptional gifts and their concomitant autistic like tendencies (Blake, 1989; Donnelly & Airman 1994; Grandin, 1995; Rimland, 1964). The propensity of these highly gifted individuals to focus and accomplish has sometimes caused them to be isolated and reclusive. Dahlberg (1992), a child psychologist interested in gifted individuals with unusual intellect, has suggested they take refuge in complex cerebration. He concluded that because they are not readily welcomed into society, they usually find support in "the unusual, the esoteric, and even in what some would consider the bizarre" (p. 9). Examples of eminent individuals who despite their great talents have sometimes displayed autistic tendencies include Albert Einstein, Bobby Fischer, Bill Gates, Howard Hughes, Sir Isaac Newton, Vincent Van Gogh, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and possibly the musical geniuses Mozart and Bartok (Cash, in press; Grandin, 1995; and Rimland, 1978).

The Impact of Giftedness on Individuals with Autism

Based upon the research and case studies presented, it is postulated that similarities exist among gifted and autistic populations, especially regarding high-functioning individuals with autism. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to determine where certain traits fit when defining each group. Perhaps the discussion concerning discreet classifications should segue into an analysis of the effects of being dual-labeled as both autistic and gifted. How do these twice-exceptional learners manage their environment, and what are the barriers impacting their adjustments?

Positive Impacts

Certainly, individuals with autism who are also gifted possess a broader spectrum of competencies than autistic individuals whose mental abilities are weak or in the retarded range. Their gifts to self and society, whether savant or precocious (i.e., TR's musical genius or Grandin's visual acuity), are generally more effectively shared and embraced by others. All of the successful gifted individuals profiled in the biographical sketches have modified their autistic traits by degree, ultimately emerging from some of the limitations of their autistic disorder. Prominent in their success was often their ability to nurture their talents into hobbies or vocations which brought them needed affirmation and approbation. According to the research (Grandin, 1995; Szatmari, Bartolucci, Bremner, Bond, & Rich, 1989; and Young & Nettlebeck 1995) the importance of parental advocacy with regard to student success for these twice-exceptional learners cannot be underestimated. Many parents of gifted individuals with autism, exceptional learners themselves, are highly involved in their students' development and growth.

Individuals with autism, whose intelligence is in the gifted range, become more easily tolerated by society over time as they learn compensatory strategies and are trained through behavior modification programs and metacognitive strategies. The key to their success and growth appears to be their higher intelligence and ability to manipulate and thereby dilute some of their apparent autistic weaknesses and tendencies (e.g., weak social interactions and stereotyped body movements). In their qualitative case study investigation of high ability students with learning disabilities, Reis, Nu, & McGuire (1997) likewise concluded that the personal plan of such individuals should include the development of compensatory strategies in an effort to self advocate and create favorable outcomes.

Grandin (1995) recounts in her biography that her abrasive speech and directness often caused others to prejudge her unfavorably, despite her attempts at control. Professionally, she has learned that to succeed with her particular set of behaviors she must frequently bring portfolio samples of her engineering designs to meetings. This permits her to build credibility with others who may doubt her capabilities based upon the initial image she presents (Cash, in press).

There are positive outcomes associated with being both gifted and autistic. However, as Donna Williams (1992) suggests, the struggle remains constant and ongoing.

Negative Impacts

Twice-exceptional learners frequently find themselves living in two worlds: one which champions their strengths and another which often misunderstands and fears their unusual complexities, visage, and perplexing inconsistencies. According to Reis et al. (1997), Diane was such an individual who "often felt as if she were two different people in the same body, one who was competent and bright who was inside, and another who blocked the smart person inside from communicating" (p. 472). The seemingly inconsistent combination of strengths and weaknesses often confuses uninformed peers and teachers.

Gifted individuals with autism have sometimes been expected to learn in classes with individuals who are not prepared to deal with their repetitive behaviors and seemingly non-traditional social reactions. These dual-labeled learners report being treated with cruelty, and they sometimes suffer social rejection by being made fun of by others (Grandin, 1995). Donna Williams, for example, was made to feel like a social outcast (Williams, 1992). Ultimately, this treatment leads to a lack of relationships and a feeling of isolation. Some gifted individuals with autism are insensitive to the lack of connectedness - a characteristic of their disorder. Others, such as Temple Grandin, Donna Williams, and Jim (described by Cesaroni and Garber, 1991) are frustrated and confused by this form of ostracism.

According to Donnelly & Altman (1993) in their research of gifted individuals with autism, "by definition, these students have remarkable skills occurring alongside areas of deficit which cause test scores to be uneven or fall below gifted and talented program criteria" (p. 253). Likewise, Silverman (1993b), in researching gifted students with disabilities, believes "the strengths and weaknesses often mask each other" (p. 159); this may lead to their being frustrated and misunderstood. Even when this is not the case, gifted individuals with autism often receive improper intellectual opportunities and are sometimes placed in classes with learners who are mentally challenged. The school teaches to their weaknesses and remediation becomes the goal. Further, Clark (1992) states that despite their talents, it is rare for children already receiving special services to also find a place in a gifted program.

Other researchers such as Smith, Tyler, & McLean (1998) and Baum & Owen (1988) report that twice-exceptional learners, whose talents are subordinated to their limitations, may suffer from low self efficacy, depression, and a weakened motivation to succeed. When it comes to college enrollment, these individuals are frequently discouraged from participation as they are judged by counselors to be unfit and unprepared (Whitmore & Maker, 1985).

Although the strengths and gifts of this twice-exceptional population of learners may offer the promise of normalcy, there are certainly no guarantees. Reis et al. (1997) in their research into gifted individuals with learning disabilities found that all of their subjects "recalled negative and in many cases painful memories of situations that had occurred specifically because of the combination of their high abilities and their learning disabilities during their elementary and secondary years" (p. 467). Such individuals are often a disappointment to themselves and others. Despite the mathematical and musical strengths of TR (Young & Nettlebeck, 1995) his future involvement and interaction with society is not assured. Similarly, Grandin admits she continues to make mistakes in new situations which personally frustrates her. During a recent interview (Cash, in press), she discussed how her encounter with an officious lawyer during a deposition seemed to unsettle her because she had not previously prepared. She concluded, "I didn't know how to handle the situation, and I finally called him an asshole".

Conclusion

In a recent article, Feldhusen (1998) investigated talent development within schools in the United States in an effort to extend the net to serve learners with a variety of gifts. He states, "the goal for all of us must be to find ways to develop the talents and special abilities of as many young people as possible..." (p.736). This mandate is no less important for dual-labeled learners including those who are both gifted and autistic.

Current educational interventions being explored for gifted individuals with autism include: early identification and screening; the use of eclectic, diagnostic instruments; parent support networks; coordinated teacher and parent training; structured, behavior modification programs; channeling through islets of ability; state of the art medical equipment and drugs; and learning theory reforms (Cash, in press; Gerlach, 1996; Grandin, 1995; Lovass, 1987; Rimland, 1978; Silverman, 1993b).

It has been observed that "autism may perhaps be best viewed as a lifelong disorder whose features change with development" (Piven, Harper, Palmer, & Arndt, 1996, p. 527). However, it is well documented that despite the concerns displayed towards gifted individuals with autism as children, they are given little consideration or attention when they become adults (Grandin, 1995; Larkin, 1997; and Sacks, 1993). According to Piven et al., (1996) "in the majority of high-IQ autistic individuals there are age-related changes in social and communication behaviors over time, and for the most part, the changes in behavior are in the direction of improvement" (p. 527). Grandin has related that friends often remark about her improved personality and voice development from year to year (Cash, in press), and the history of eminent individuals who have displayed autistic tendencies attests to their ultimate success in becoming important, contributing adults over time. It is clear that with understanding, motivation, early educational intervention, and life-long encouragement some twice-exceptional learners, who are both autistic and gifted, can lead successful even "exceptional lives". It is also the case that the conflicted commingling of strengths and weaknesses may result in an adult whose potential is left unfulfilled.

The continued research by educators into this more frequently recognized population of twice-exceptional learners will no doubt reveal many useful educational interventions. In particular, future investigations might employ case study methodology to clearly profile the triumphs and problems of gifted individuals with autism being served within regular classroom settings. Such studies should also include longitudinal components which offer insights into the nurturing and development of these learners well into their adult years.

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Manuscript submitted March, 1998.

Revision accepted November, 1998.

Abbey Block Cash, an educator, administrator, and a consultant to schools and the Department of Education in New York State for over 30 years, does research in the areas of giftedness, curriculum, and effective instruction. She is currently Assistant Professor of Elementary and Secondary Education at SUNY New Paltz.3