A Longitudinal Examination of the Consequences of Sexual Victimization for Rural Young Adult Women.Sexual victimization victimization Social medicine The abuse of the disenfranchised–eg, those underage, elderly, ♀, mentally retarded, illegal aliens, or other, by coercing them into illegal activities–eg, drug trade, pornography, prostitution. is a pervasive pervasive, adj indicates that a condition permeates the entire development of the individual. problem for women today. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the National Crime Victimization Study, in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. women ages 12 years and older report 500,000 rapes and sexual assaults annually (Bachman Bachman - A proposed a style of Entity-Relationship model which differs from Chen's. & Saltzman, 1995). The psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. consequences of sexually victimizing experiences merit particular attention, as it is widely believed that sexual victimization has implications for how a woman feels about herself and her life, and how she behaves subsequent to victimization. Numerous studies have demonstrated associations between victimization and psychological, social, and relational adjustment outcomes. However, most prior research on this topic has been limited by one of three shortcomings A shortcoming is a character flaw. Shortcomings may also be:
First, although some studies have examined sexual victimization longitudinally lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. 1. a. Of or relating to longitude or length: a longitudinal reckoning by the navigator; made longitudinal measurements of the hull. b. , most have not controlled for adjustment prior to sexual victimization experiences and thus cannot disentangle the effects of sexual victimization from effects of prior psychological adjustment. In many cases, controlling for adjustment prior to victimization was not possible because the sample was recruited and followed only after the women were victimized (Murphy et al., 1988; Siegel Siegel, a surname, is associated with two ethnic groups. As a Jewish surname Siegel (סג"ל) it could be an acronym of Segan Levi (סגן לוי), meaning "Assistant Levite". , Golding Gold·ing , William Gerald 1911-1993. British writer noted for his dark novels, such as The Lord of the Flies (1954) and Pincher Martin (1956). He won the 1983 Nobel Prize for literature. Noun 1. , Stein Stein , William Howard 1911-1980. American biochemist. He shared a 1972 Nobel Prize for pioneering studies of ribonuclease. , Burnam, & Sorenson, 1990). Second, although some studies have identified different types of sexual victimization, few studies have examined the differential effects of these distinct coercive co·er·cive adj. Characterized by or inclined to coercion. co·er  cive·ly adv. experiences
on women's adjustment. Third, few studies examine the impact of
sexual victimization within community samples of women, instead of
college or clinical samples (George George, river, c.345 mi (560 km) long, rising in a lake on the Quebec-Labrador boundary, E Canada. It flows N through Indian Lake (125 sq mi/324 sq km) to Ungava Bay (an arm of Hudson Strait). , Winfield Winfield, city (1990 pop. 11,931), seat of Cowley co., S central Kans., on the Walnut River; inc. 1873. The economy is based on agricultural and oil and gas wells. Among Winfield's manufactures are gas burners, steel drums, industrial boilers, and aircraft parts. , & Blazer, 1992;
Zweig Zweig , Arnold 1887-1968.German-born writer. A Zionist, he wrote about Judaism, the persecution of the Jews, and war. His works include the novel The Case of Sergeant Grischa (1927). Noun 1. , Barber A barber (from the Latin barba, "beard") is someone whose occupation is to cut any type of hair, give shaves, and trim beards. In previous times, barbers also performed surgery and dentistry. , & Eccles Eccles (ek`əlz), town (1991 pop. 37,166), Salford metropolitan district, NW England, in the Manchester metropolitan area on the Manchester Ship Canal. Industries include chemicals, rubber, plastics, textiles, and light and heavy engineering. , 1997). The current study addressed these three limitations by utilizing a community sample of rural women who had been previously surveyed as adolescents. As adults, the women reported diverse types of victimization, making it possible to examine the consequences of different types of sexually victimizing experiences, while controlling for adjustment prior to victimization. Based on the prior literature on sexual victimization, three types of adjustment outcomes were considered: (a) mood, (b) self-perceptions, and (c) social/relational adjustment. Mood Outcomes of Sexual Victimization Women who have been sexually victimized often report higher levels of depression (Miller, Monson Monson may refer to:
American educator, writer, and editor who founded the Nation (1865). , 1995; Muehlenhard, Goggins, Jones, & Satterfield, 1991; Siegel et al., 1990; Zweig et al., 1997). For instance, adolescent ad·o·les·cent adj. Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence. n. A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. females who reported unwanted sexual activity were more likely than other females to exhibit symptoms of depression (Erickson Erickson can refer to several persons:
adj. 1. Tending to depress or lower. 2. Depressing; gloomy. 3. Of or relating to psychological depression. n. A person suffering from psychological depression. symptomology from a sample of 69 rape victims. Of those women, 11% reported severe depression, 29% reported moderate to severe depression, 21% reported mild to moderate depression, and 40% were minimally or not depressed. Feelings of anger and hostility are also greater among women who report sexual victimization. Adolescent females who had unwanted sexual experiences reported difficulty controlling their anger (Erickson & Rapkin, 1991), while young adult women who were sexually coerced reported greater levels of anger than women who were not coerced (Zweig et al., 1997). It may also be common for women to feel anger toward the perpetrator A term commonly used by law enforcement officers to designate a person who actually commits a crime. of the sexual coercion coercion, in law, the unlawful act of compelling a person to do, or to abstain from doing, something by depriving him of the exercise of his free will, particularly by use or threat of physical or moral force. (Muehlenhard et al., 1991). Self-Perception self-per·cep·tion n. An awareness of the characteristics that constitute one's self; self-knowledge. Outcomes of Sexual Victimization Sexual victimization has been linked to lower self-esteem self-esteem Sense of personal worth and ability that is fundamental to an individual's identity. Family relationships during childhood are believed to play a crucial role in its development. , although this link has not been shown consistently. In a number of studies, women who reported victimization also reported lower self-esteem than women without a history of victimization (Jehu Jehu (jē`hy  ).1 King of Israel. He was anointed king by Elisha, who led the revolt against the house of Ahab. & Gazan, 1983; Murphy et al., 1988; Resick, 1993; Zweig et al., 1997). However, longitudinal studies longitudinal studies, n.pl the epidemiologic studies that record data from a respresentative sample at repeated intervals over an extended span of time rather than at a single or limited number over a short period. indicate that the negative effects on self-esteem tend to dissipate dis·si·pate v. dis·si·pat·ed, dis·si·pat·ing, dis·si·pates v.tr. 1. To drive away; disperse. 2. over time (Murphy et al., 1988). Moreover, some studies find no relationship between sexual victimization experience and reports of lower self-esteem (Miller et al., 1995). Thus, self-esteem may be affected by sexually victimizing experiences, but the strength and persistence (1) In a CRT, the time a phosphor dot remains illuminated after being energized. Long-persistence phosphors reduce flicker, but generate ghost-like images that linger on screen for a fraction of a second. of this effect is unclear. Sexual victimization may also be related to a woman's body image. Although this relationship has not been examined directly, weight and eating problems have been linked to sexual victimization experiences. Erickson and Rapkin (1991) reported that adolescent females who experienced unwanted sexual activity were more likely to report weight problems than those who did not have these experiences. Kearney-Cooke (1988) reported that a high percentage of bulimic bu·li·mi·a n. 1. An eating disorder, common especially among young women of normal or nearly normal weight, that is characterized by episodic binge eating and followed by feelings of guilt, depression, and self-condemnation. women have been sexually abused. She suggested that sexually victimizing experiences and the powerlessness pow·er·less adj. 1. Lacking strength or power; helpless and totally ineffectual. 2. Lacking legal or other authority. pow that is often felt by women who experience victimization may be important contributing factors to the development of eating disorders eating disorders, in psychology, disorders in eating patterns that comprise four categories: anorexia nervosa, bulimia, rumination disorder, and pica. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation to avoid obesity. . Because of this, it is plausible that some body image disturbances may be connected to sexual abuse episodes (Kearney-Cooke, 1988). Social/Relational Adjustment Outcomes of Sexual Victimization Social and relational adjustment is another area in which sexually victimized women display problems (Resick, 1993). Zweig et al. (1997) reported that women who had experienced sexual coercion were more likely to report social isolation than women who had not been victimized. Moreover, some women have reported a fear of intimate relationships An intimate relationship is a particularly close interpersonal relationship. It is a relationship in which the participants know or trust one another very well or are confidants of one another, or a relationship in which there is physical or emotional intimacy. or an avoidance of relationships in response to a sexually abusive Tending to deceive; practicing abuse; prone to ill-treat by coarse, insulting words or harmful acts. Using ill treatment; injurious, improper, hurtful, offensive, reproachful. experience (Jehu & Gazan, 1983). Finally, women who have been sexually victimized sometimes report problems with their romantic relationships, particularly if the perpetrator of the victimization was a romantic partner. Christopher (1988) reported that being pressured into sexual activity in the early stages of a relationship was especially likely to result in decreased quality of that relationship. Additionally, sexual victimization seems to affect women's ability to have healthy and satisfying sexual relationships (Kilpatrick Kilpatrick is an Irish and Scottish surname. The name refers to:
n. 1. See Sandress. & Veronen, 1988; Resick, 1993). Some studies show that women who have been sexually victimized reported lower levels of sexual satisfaction and pleasure than women who have not been victimized (Siegel et al., 1990; Zweig, 1995). Many factors may relate to this decrease in sexual satisfaction. Some women report a general decrease in sexual interest following sexual assaults (Siegel et al., 1990). Also, a rape experience may lead a woman to associate sex with violence, resulting in "flashback flash·back n. 1. An unexpected recurrence of the effects of a hallucinogenic drug long after its original use. 2. A recurring, intensely vivid mental image of a past traumatic experience. " experiences during voluntary sexual encounters (Wiehe Wiehe is a town in the Kyffhäuserkreis district, in Thuringia, Germany. It is situated 24 km south of Sangerhausen, and 32 km north of Weimar. & Richards Rich·ards , Dickinson Woodruff 1895-1973. American physician. He shared a 1956 Nobel Prize for developing cardiac catheterization. , 1995). Outcomes Related to Different Types of Sexually Victimizing Experiences There is some evidence that the type of victimization a woman experiences is related to her reaction to the experience. However, only a small number of studies have compared the effects of different kinds of victimization experiences, and, like many of the studies presented previously, most have relied on cross-sectional data Cross-sectional data in statistics and econometrics is a type of one-dimensional data set. Cross-sectional data refers to data collected by observing many subjects (such as individuals, firms or countries/regions) at the same point of time, or without regard to differences in time. . Findings have been mixed. Some studies indicate that women who are coerced by psychological means have worse outcomes than those who are physically coerced. Mynatt and Allgeier (1990) found that women who were coerced into sexual activity by psychological manipulation reported more severe adjustment problems than women who were coerced by physical means. Similarly, Zweig et al. (1997) found that women who were pressured into having sex reported more depressed mood and more social anxiety than either women who reported violent coercion or women who reported no coercion. Using the same categories of coercion, Zweig (1995) found a similar pattern, with women who were pressured into sex reporting lower levels of sexual satisfaction than women who were violently coerced or women who were not coerced. Other researchers have found the opposite pattern of results. Siegel et al. (1990) reported that participants who had been physically threatened during their sexual assault were more likely to report sexual problems, fear, and depression than those who were pressured by persuasion PERSUASION. The act of influencing by expostulation or request. While the persuasion is confined within those limits which leave the mind free, it may be used to induce another to make his will, or even to make it in his own favor; but if such persuasion should so far operate on the mind . Thus, the evidence supports the idea that physical and psychological coercion elicit e·lic·it tr.v. e·lic·it·ed, e·lic·it·ing, e·lic·its 1. a. To bring or draw out (something latent); educe. b. To arrive at (a truth, for example) by logic. 2. varying degrees of problems, but the evidence is mixed concerning which type of experience is most debilitating de·bil·i·tat·ing adj. Causing a loss of strength or energy. Debilitating Weakening, or reducing the strength of. Mentioned in: Stress Reduction . The Present Study The current study sought to extend the prior literature in several ways. First, we investigated the psychological effects of sexual victimization in longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. analyses that included controls for earlier psychological adjustment. Based on prior findings, we hypothesized that both violent and nonviolent sexual coercion would be associated with poorer psychological and social/relational adjustment compared to no victimization. Second, we identified four distinct subtypes of coerced sex and compared adjustment outcomes for women who had experienced different subtypes. Our concern in these latter analyses was whether distinct types of sexual coercion differentially affected women's subsequent adjustment. We employed a broad definition of sexual victimization: Any instance of unwanted intercourse INTERCOURSE. Communication; commerce; connexion by reciprocal dealings between persons or nations, as by interchange of commodities, treaties, contracts, or letters. was regarded as an instance of coercion and sexual victimization. This approach is consonant consonant Any speech sound characterized by an articulation in which a closure or narrowing of the vocal tract completely or partially blocks the flow of air; also, any letter or symbol representing such a sound. with many previous studies (e.g., Erickson & Rapkin, 1991; Himelein, 1995; Himelein, Vogel, & Wachowiak, 1994; Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987; Muehlenhard & Cook, 1988), but other researchers argue that some instances of unwanted intercourse are consensual CONSENSUAL, civil law. This word is applied to designate one species of contract known in the civil laws; these contracts derive their name from the consent of the parties which is required in their formation, as they cannot exist without such consent. 2. and should not count as victimization (O' Sullivan & Allgeier, 1998).(1) Our goal was not to resolve this definitional issue but rather to examine the effects of different types of unwanted sex empirically in order to determine which kinds of experiences are most debilitating for women. Analyses focused on sexual victimization experiences that occurred during adolescence adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood. The exact period of adolescence, which varies from person to person, falls approximately between the ages 12 and 20 and encompasses both physiological and psychological changes. and young adulthood. This period of the lifespan lifespan Longevity Epidemiology The genetically endowed limit to life for a person, if free of exogenous risk factors. See Average lifespan, Life expectancy. was selected because victimization is most likely to occur during this age range. According to the National Crime Statistics, women ages 16 to 24 are 3 times more likely than women of other ages to be raped (Harlow Harlow, city (1991 pop. 79,150) and district, Essex, E England. Harlow was designated one of the new towns in 1946 to alleviate overpopulation in London. It grew rapidly to become a significant residential and industrial city. , 1991). Similar to the approach taken in the National Health and Social Life Survey, which differentiated between prepubertal prepubertal /pre·pu·ber·tal/ (-pu´ber-tal) before puberty; pertaining to the period of accelerated growth preceding gonadal maturity. and postpubertal postpubertal /post·pu·ber·tal/ (-pu´ber-tal) after puberty. postpuberal, postpubertal after puberty. victimization (Laumann, Gagnon Gagnon is a surname, and may refer to:
Michael (mī`kəl) [Heb.,=who is like God?], archangel prominent in Christian, Jewish, and Muslim traditions. In the Bible and early Jewish literature, Michael is one of the angels of God's presence. , & Michaels This article is about the U.S. crafts retail chain. For the bidding convention in the card game of Bridge, see Michaels cuebid. For the same-sex couple in Canada, see The Michaels. Michaels is the largest arts and crafts retail chain in the United States. , 1994), subjects who experienced victimization prior to age 12 were excluded from analysis. METHOD Design The present study was part of a larger ongoing project examining developmental issues for rural youth during adolescence and young adulthood. The design of the original study was a longitudinal cohort-sequential design (Baltes, Reese REESE Research and Evaluation on Education in Science and Engineering (National Science Foundation) , & Nesselroade, 1977) where three cohorts (the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade classes in 1985) from one rural school district were followed for the past 14 years. Data collection began in junior high and occurred annually throughout high school; periodic follow-ups were conducted during the post high school years, for a total of eight waves of data. PROCEDURE During the fall of each school year, students were divided by gender for one class period, and trained project members administered written surveys (Crockett, Bingham Bing·ham , George Caleb 1811-1879. American painter noted for his portraits and genre paintings of the American frontier. , Chopak, & Vicary Vic´ar`y n. 1. A vicar. , 1996; Vicary, Klingamen & Harkness Harkness is a Scottish surname. Its etymology is probably from the Old English personal name Hereca (a derivative of the various compound names with the first element here army) plus the Old English næss headland, cape , 1995). Confidentiality was emphasized. Adolescents whose parents did not allow them to participate were excluded from data collection. Incentives for participation were offered through raffle items, such as tickets to football games. In 1995, participants were contacted again for an eighth wave of data collection. Members of all three cohorts were mailed a survey assessing educational experiences, work experiences, romantic partnerships, parenting, psychological adjustment, substance use, and sexual experiences. SAMPLE The original sample included junior high students from one rural public school district in the eastern United States. The school district included two junior high schools, each with grades seven, eight, and nine (Crockett et al., 1996). All participants were Caucasian Caucasian or Caucasoid: see race. and living in a geographically isolated rural area. This area was considered to be economically and educationally deprived when data collection began in 1985 (Vicary, 1991). Of the eligible female students in 1985, 96% participated in the study (Vicary et al., 1995). The analyses reported in this paper are restricted to women who participated in both Survey 8 and in the adolescent portion of the study at Grade 9. In total, 249 women participated in Survey 8, representing 71% of the female sample. Seven women were excluded from analysis because they reported childhood sexual abuse (victimization before age 12).(2) In addition, five women were excluded from analysis because of inconsistent reports of sexual victimization that could not be resolved; these women were excluded to avoid misclassification. Therefore, the sample for this study included 237 women (68% of the total female sample).(3) In order to test for bias related to differential attrition Attrition The reduction in staff and employees in a company through normal means, such as retirement and resignation. This is natural in any business and industry. Notes: , the adolescent data for individuals who participated in Survey 8 (n = 237) were compared to those who did not participate in Survey 8 (n = 92). A series of t-tests was conducted to compare mean differences on several Grade 9 variables, including frequency of drunkenness Drunkenness See also Alcoholism. Acrasia self-indulgent in the pleasures of the senses. [Br. Lit.: Faerie Queene] Admiral of the red a wine-bibber. [Br. , frequency of sexual intercourse sexual intercourse or coitus or copulation Act in which the male reproductive organ enters the female reproductive tract (see reproductive system). , antisocial antisocial /an·ti·so·cial/ (-so´sh'l) 1. denoting behavior that violates the rights of others, societal mores, or the law. 2. denoting the specific personality traits seen in antisocial personality disorder. behavior, gender role attitudes, emotional tone, self-esteem, school grades, quality of peer relationships, quality of family relationships, and mother's education. Based on these tests, the attrited at·trit also at·trite tr.v. at·trit·ted also at·trit·ed, at·trit·ting also at·trit·ing, at·trits also at·trites 1. To lose (personnel, for example) by attrition. 2. group had a significantly higher frequency of drunkenness (M = 2.17 vs. M = 1.81), t(307) = 2.66, p [is less than] .05, and sexual intercourse (M = 1.91 vs. M = 1.59), t(306) = 2.35, p [is less than] .05, at Grade 9 than the group who participated in Survey 8, along with significantly lower school grades (M = 5.90 vs. M = 6.25), t(304) = -2.06, p [is less than] .05. These differences suggest that the women who participated at Survey 8 were somewhat better adjusted than the attrited group. The women ranged in age from 12 to 16 years (M = 14) at Grade 9 and from 21 to 26 years (M = 23) at Survey 8. Seventy-nine percent of the women lived in rural areas at the time of follow-up follow-up, n the process of monitoring the progress of a patient after a period of active treatment. follow-up subsequent. follow-up plan ; the remaining women lived in suburban areas (7%), urban areas (12%), or on military bases (1%). Level of educational attainment Educational attainment is a term commonly used by statisticans to refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed.[1] The US Census Bureau Glossary defines educational attainment as "the highest level of education completed in terms of the varied: 6%0 of the women had not finished high school, 6% had completed their GED GED abbr. 1. general equivalency diploma 2. general educational development GED (US) n abbr (Scol) (= general educational development) → , 27% had graduated from high school, 12% had received technical training after high school, 20% had completed some college, 26% had graduated from college, and 3% had received graduate or professional training. At Survey 8, 41% of the women were married, 14% were engaged, 4% were divorced/separated, 40% were single, and 1% were remarried. Among the 94 single women who were not engaged, 16% were living with their partners, 22% were in steady, committed relationships A committed relationship is an interpersonal relationship based upon a mutually agreed upon commitment to one another involving exclusivity, honesty, or some other agreed upon behavior. , and 19% were in casual dating A form of dating in which both parties are free to date other individuals. Casual dating involves no commitment from either party to remain monogamous, nor is there any expectation in terms of frequency. relationships. Almost all the women in the sample identified themselves as heterosexual heterosexual /het·ero·sex·u·al/ (-sek´shoo-al) 1. pertaining to, characteristic of, or directed toward the opposite sex. 2. one who is sexually attracted to persons of the opposite sex. (99%). One woman identified herself as bisexual bisexual /bi·sex·u·al/ (-sek´shoo-al) 1. pertaining to or characterized by bisexuality. 2. an individual exhibiting bisexuality. 3. pertaining to or characterized by hermaphroditism. 4. and 2 reported they were uncertain about their sexual orientation sexual orientation n. The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes, especially a direction seen to be dictated by physiologic rather than sociologic forces. . Ninety-five percent (n = 222) of the women reported having experienced sexual intercourse. MEASURES Measures used in the current study are listed below. Self-esteem and emotional tone were measured in Grade 9 and in young adulthood. All other measures were assessed only in young adulthood. Scale scores were computed by averaging item scores for that measure. A scale score was only generated for individuals who answered at least 75% of the items in that scale. Higher scale scores reflect higher levels of the latent Hidden; concealed; that which does not appear upon the face of an item. For example, a latent defect in the title to a parcel of real property is one that is not discoverable by an inspection of the title made with ordinary care. construct of interest. For established measures, scale validity was reported by the scale author. For measures created or adapted for the current study, convergent and discriminant validity Discriminant validity describes the degree to which the operationalization is not similar to (diverges from) other operationalizations that it theoretically should not be similar to. coefficients were estimated by correlating the scale score of interest with items or scales in the survey that assessed similar or opposing constructs. For scale reliability, estimates of internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. (i.e., Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. ) were computed using the present sample.Mood Emotional tone. Adolescents' emotional well-being was assessed with the Emotional Tone subscale of the Self-Image self-image n. The conception that one has of oneself, including an assessment of qualities and personal worth. Questionnaire for Young Adolescents (SIQYA; Petersen Petersen is a surname, and may refer to
n the degree to which an experimentally-determined definition matches the theoretical definition. was estimated through factor analysis and through correlations with other self-image scales (Petersen et al., 1984). For the present sample, Cronbach's alpha was .87 for Grade 9 females and .91 for the young adult women. Depression. The 6-item Kandel Depression Inventory assessed how much respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. were bothered by symptoms of depression over the past year (Kandel & Davies, 1986). An example item is "Feeling unhappy, sad, or depressed." Responses ranged from 1 = Much to 3 = Not at all. Kandel and Davies (1986) reported evidence of scale validity and adequate test-retest reliability test-retest reliability Psychology A measure of the ability of a psychologic testing instrument to yield the same result for a single Pt at 2 different test periods, which are closely spaced so that any variation detected reflects reliability of the instrument . Cronbach's alpha was .78 for the young adult women in the present sample. Anger. The measure of anger was based on scales assessing anger and hostility developed by Derogatis and Melisaratos (1983) and McCrae and Costa (1989). An example of the 8 items is "I am easily annoyed or irritated ir·ri·tate v. ir·ri·tat·ed, ir·ri·tat·ing, ir·ri·tates v.tr. 1. To rouse to impatience or anger; annoy: a loud bossy voice that irritates listeners. ." Responses ranged from 1 = Very strongly agree to 6 = Very strongly disagree. To examine construct validity, this scale was correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. with conflict in romantic relationships: r = .37 for verbal conflict and r = .36 for physical conflict. Cronbach's alpha was .84 for the young adult women. Self-Perceptions Self-esteem. The 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory was used to measure self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965). An example item is "I wish I could have more respect for myself." The response scale ranged from 1 = Strongly agree to 4 = Strongly disagree. Construct validity was examined by Rosenberg (1965) and found to be acceptable. Cronbach's alpha was .86 for Grade 9 females and .91 for the young adult women. Body image. Body image was assessed using a subscale of the SIQYA (Petersen let al., 1984). This scale includes 8 items assessing how participants' perceive their bodies. An example is "Most of the, time I am happy with the way I look." Responses ranged from 1 = Very strongly agree to 6 = Very strongly disagree. To examine validity, this scale was correlated with Rosenberg self-esteem scores, r = .56. Cronbach's alpha was .80 for the young adult women. Social/Relational Adjustment Assertiveness assertiveness /as·ser·tive·ness/ (ah-ser´tiv-nes) the quality or state of bold or confident self-expression, neither aggressive nor submissive. . The dating and assertion measure used in this survey was adapted from a scale designed by Levenson and Gottman (1978) to assess social competence. Five items were used from the original scale and three additional items were included. Responses ranged from 1 = Never to 4 = Almost always. The assertiveness subscale contained four items, such as how often participants can "say `no' when you feel like it." To examine validity, assertiveness was correlated with self-esteem, r = .50. Cronbach's alpha was .77 for the young adult women. Intimacy This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details. This article has been tagged since September 2007. competence. Intimacy competence was also assessed using the dating and assertion measure adapted from Levenson and Gottman (1978). The subscale consisted of three items; for example, how often the respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. can "accurately sense how a member of the opposite sex feels about you." To examine validity, this scale was correlated with the item "I really don't know Don't know (DK, DKed) "Don't know the trade." A Street expression used whenever one party lacks knowledge of a trade or receives conflicting instructions from the other party. how to make a serious relationship work," r = -.46, and with the item "I am sure that I can have a satisfying intimate relationship," r = .47. Cronbach's alpha was .81 for the young adult women. Sexual esteem. Sexual esteem was assessed using three items from a subscale created by Snell Snell , George 1903-1996. American geneticist. He shared a 1980 Nobel Prize for discoveries concerning cell structure that enhanced understanding of the immunological system, resulting in higher success rates in organ transplantation. and Papini (1989). An example item is "I am a good sexual partner." Responses were recorded on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree. To examine validity, sexual esteem was correlated with Rosenberg self-esteem scores, r = .45. Cronbach's alpha was .88 for the young adult women. Sexual depression. Sexual depression was assessed using two items from another subscale created by Snell and Papini (1989). An example item is "I am disappointed about the quality of my sex life." Responses were recorded on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree. To examine validity, sexual depression was correlated with Kandel depression scores, r = .34. Cronbach's alpha was .70 for the young adult women. Current romantic relationship quality. Relationship quality was assessed by a series of questions asking about positive affect in relationships. Some of these items were adapted from The Relationship Questionnaire by Braiker and Kelley (1979) and some were developed by project staff. An example of these items is "To what extent do you love your partner at this stage?" Responses ranged from 1 = Not at all to 7 = Very. Anchors varied with the specific quality being asked. To examine validity, this scale was correlated with the Dyadic Two. Refers to two components being used. (programming) dyadic - binary (describing an operator). Compare monadic. Cohesion cohesion: see adhesion and cohesion. Cohesion (physics) The tendency of atoms or molecules to coalesce into extended condensed states. This tendency is practically universal. Scale (Spanier, 1976), r = .62. Cronbach's alpha was .92 for the young adult women. Sexual Victimization For the present study, measures of sexual victimization focused on intercourse. The type of intercourse was not specified (i.e., vaginal vag·i·nal adj. 1. Of or relating to the vagina. 2. Relating to or resembling a sheath. vaginal pertaining to the vagina, the tunica vaginalis testis, or to any sheath. intercourse, oral intercourse, or anal intercourse Noun 1. anal intercourse - intercourse via the anus, committed by a man with a man or woman anal sex, buggery, sodomy sexual perversion, perversion - an aberrant sexual practice; ). The intent was to include women who had experienced victimization other than through vaginal intercourse, but to exclude experiences such as forced kissing or forced sexual exposure. Unwanted sex. To identify unwanted sexual experiences, participants were asked, "Have you ever had sexual intercourse with someone when you didn't want to?" If participants answered yes, they answered questions regarding the type of sexual victimization they had experienced. The sexual experience was intentionally in·ten·tion·al adj. 1. Done deliberately; intended: an intentional slight. See Synonyms at voluntary. 2. Having to do with intention. not called rape or sexual assault, because some women may not be willing or able to label their experience in those terms (Koss, 1985). Additionally, Koss (1993) encouraged researchers to use behaviorally focused questions when studying victimization in order to increase a woman's recall of an event or willingness to report it. Women were also not asked if they had consented to the unwanted experience. Because the focus of this study was on the consequences of unwanted sexual experiences, the issue of consent was not central. A woman may "consent" under pressure, but still feel violated vi·o·late tr.v. vi·o·lat·ed, vi·o·lat·ing, vi·o·lates 1. To break or disregard (a law or promise, for example). 2. To assault (a person) sexually. 3. or compromised by the experience. Thus, all unwanted experiences were included even though some of these experiences could have been consensual (O'Sullivan & Allgeier, 1998). Types of sexual coercion. Respondents were asked whether they had ever had unwanted sex for 11 specific reasons (see Appendix A). They were instructed to check all the reasons that applied to them. This measure was adapted from two existing measures developed by Muehlenhard and Cook (1988) and Koss and Oros (1982). Women were divided into four categories based on the most severe type of sexual coercion experienced.(4) In order of increasing severity, these included: internal psychological pressure (items 10 and 11--e.g., "You felt obligated ob·li·gate tr.v. ob·li·gat·ed, ob·li·gat·ing, ob·li·gates 1. To bind, compel, or constrain by a social, legal, or moral tie. See Synonyms at force. 2. To cause to be grateful or indebted; oblige. "), substance-related coercion (items 1, 2, and 3--e.g., "You were so drunk or stoned that you were unaware of what was going on"), external psychological manipulation (items 8 and 9--e.g., "The other person threatened to end the relationship"), and threat or actual use of violence by the perpetrator (items 4, 5, 6, and 7--"The other person used physical violence [for instance, slapping slapping, n massage technique that uses the flat palms of the hands percussively; a form of tapotement. See also tapotement. , hitting]"). For example, a woman who reported both substance-related coercion and external psychological manipulation was classified into the external psychological manipulation category. Some may argue that internal psychological pressure does not represent a form of sexual victimization given the large number of individuals who have sex out of a sense of obligation or in order to please the other person (O'Sullivan & Allgeier, 1998). This category was included in the present analysis because, regardless of the circumstances CIRCUMSTANCES, evidence. The particulars which accompany a fact. 2. The facts proved are either possible or impossible, ordinary and probable, or extraordinary and improbable, recent or ancient; they may have happened near us, or afar off; they are public or leading up to the event, women identified these events as unwanted sexual experiences. As stated earlier, one goal of this study was to determine how different unwanted experiences impact psychosocial adjustment. RESULTS Seventy-one women (30.0%) reported having an experience of sexual victimization. Using the four categories described previously, 25 (35.2%) reported internal psychological pressure, 16 (22.5%) reported substance-related coercion, 11 (15.5%) reported external psychological manipulation, and 19 (26.8%) reported violent coercion by the perpetrator. Again, these classifications represent the most severe type of coercion a woman reported, since many women reported multiple experiences of sexual victimization: 37 reported one type, 22 reported two types, 10 reported three types, and 2 reported all four types of victimization experiences. The mean numbers of unwanted sexual experiences reported by the four category types were: internal psychological pressure = 1.00, substance-related coercion = 1.53, external psychological manipulation = 2.30, and violent coercion = 2.37. A regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. including dummy variables This article is not about "dummy variables" as that term is usually understood in mathematics. See free variables and bound variables. In regression analysis, a dummy variable and a multi-parameter hypothesis test was conducted to compare the number of different kinds of coercion experienced by women in the four coercion categories. This analysis indicated that significant differences existed between all combinations of groups except the external psychological manipulation group and the violent coercion group ([R.sup.2] = .52, p [is less than] .001). Information on unwanted sexual intercourse and the circumstances surrounding sur·round tr.v. sur·round·ed, sur·round·ing, sur·rounds 1. To extend on all sides of simultaneously; encircle. 2. To enclose or confine on all sides so as to bar escape or outside communication. n. it were combined to create an overall victimization status for each woman. Categories included: never victimized (n = 156, 68.7%), violently coerced to have sex (i.e., coerced by the threat or actual use of violence, n = 19, 8.4%), and nonviolently non·vi·o·lence n. 1. Lack of violence. 2. The doctrine, policy, or practice of rejecting violence in favor of peaceful tactics as a means of gaining political objectives. coerced to have sex (i.e., had sex because of internal psychological pressure, substance-related coercion, or external psychological manipulation, n = 52, 22.9%). Ten women who did not respond to the initial question on sexual victimization were excluded from analysis. Preliminary Analyses The intercorrelations among the young adult measures of psychosocial adjustment are provided in Table 1. The correlation coefficients Correlation Coefficient A measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated. The correlation coefficient is calculated as: ranged in absolute value from r =. 10 to r = .67, (median r = .33), suggesting some degree of overlap o·ver·lap n. 1. A part or portion of a structure that extends or projects over another. 2. The suturing of one layer of tissue above or under another layer to provide additional strength, often used in dental surgery. v. among outcome variables, particularly those reflecting negative affect (emotional tone, anger, and depression) and self-perceptions (self-esteem and body image). The two adolescent adjustment variables were also strongly intercorrelated (r = .72).
Table 1. Correlations Between Young Adult Outcome Variables
Self- Emotional
esteem tone Depression
Self-esteem 1.00 .67(*) -.55(*)
Emotional tone 1.00 -.56(*)
Depression 1.00
Sexual esteem
Sexual depression
Body Image
Anger
Assertiveness
Intimacy competence
Quality of romantic relationships
Sexual Sexual Body
esteem depression image
Self-esteem .45(*) -.33(*) .56(*)
Emotional tone .37(*) -.31(*) .60(*)
Depression -.33(*) .34(*) -.39(*)
Sexual esteem 1.00 -.45(*) .39(*)
Sexual depression 1.00 -.28(*)
Body Image 1.00
Anger
Assertiveness
Intimacy competence
Quality of romantic relationships
Anger Assertive
Self-esteem -.49(*) .50(*)
Emotional tone -.65(*) .40(*)
Depression .48(*) -.34(*)
Sexual esteem -.34(*) .41(*)
Sexual depression .30(*) -.18(*)
Body Image -.44(*) .31(*)
Anger 1.00 -.29(*)
Assertiveness 1.00
Intimacy competence
Quality of romantic relationships
Intimacy Quality of
competence romantic rels
Self-esteem .31(*) .23(*)
Emotional tone .19(*) .22(*)
Depression -.13(*) -.17(*)
Sexual esteem .37(*) .33(*)
Sexual depression -.18(*) -.27(*)
Body Image .16(*) .10
Anger -.13 -.26(*)
Assertiveness .37(*) .20(*)
Intimacy competence 1.00 .48(*)
Quality of romantic relationships 1.00
(*) p < .05. Each of the adolescent adjustment variables was significantly associated with most of the young adult adjustment indicators. Grade 9 self-esteem was significantly correlated with all 10 outcome variables (r's ranged from -.14 to .34) and Grade 9 emotional tone was significantly associated with 8 of the outcome variables; (r's ranged from -.24 to .29). Relation of Violent and Nonviolent Victimization to Psychosocial Adjustment Multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. was used to examine the effects of sexual victimization on each young adult adjustment indicator, controlling for adolescent adjustment. Four women who did not have adolescent data were excluded from the regression models; this included 2 women from the internal psychological pressure group, 1 woman from the substance-related coercion group, and 1 women from the external psychological manipulation group. Grade 9 self-esteem and Grade 9 emotional tone were the best adolescent adjustment measures available. Although they were not optimal control variables for many of the adjustment indicators, they permitted at least a partial control for prior adjustment. Thus, one or the other was included in each regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. . Because the measures were highly intercorrelated, it would be inappropriate to include both as controls in the same analysis. As an initial step, adolescent (9th Grade) emotional tone and self-esteem were examined separately in simple regression Noun 1. simple regression - the relation between selected values of x and observed values of y (from which the most probable value of y can be predicted for any value of x) regression toward the mean, statistical regression, regression analyses predicting each of the young adult outcomes. If either proved significant, it was retained as a control variable in subsequent analyses of that outcome. If both were significant, the one that was more strongly related to the outcome was selected as the control variable. For the regression analyses, the categorical That which is unqualified or unconditional. A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding. Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people. variable of victimization status was recoded into dummy variables. The dummy variables for violently coerced and nonviolently coerced were included in the models, with never victimized as the reference group. One less than the total number of dummy variables were included in each model to avoid collinearity collinearity very high correlation between variables. among the independent variables (Hardy Hardy may refer to:
(statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. for the three victimization status groups are in Table 2. The final regression models and the multi-parameter tests are shown in Table 3. Only results for outcomes with significant models are presented.
Table 2. Means of Outcome Variables by Victimization Status
Never Nonviolent Violent
Victimized Coercion Coercion
Measure n = 156 n = 48 n = 19
Emotional tone 3.84 3.92 3.32
(0.8) (0.8) (0.9)
Depression 1.91 2.02 2.14
(0.4) (0.5) (0.5)
Anger 3.20 3.21 3.67
(0.9) (0.9) (1.0)
Self-esteem 3.29 3.28 2.83
(0.5) (0.6) (0.6)
Body image 3.78 3.69 3.28
(0.8) (0.7) (0.8)
Assertiveness 3.05 2.99 2.75
(0.6) (0.6) (0.7)
Intimacy competence 2.91 2.81 2.80
(0.8) (0.8) (1.0)
Sexual esteem 5.72 5.47 4.91
(1.2) (1.3) (1.2)
Sexual depression 2.44 3.02 2.95
(1.6) (1.6) (1.6)
Quality of romantic
relationship 6.18 5.81 5.45
(0.9) (1.2) (1.4)
Note: Standard deviations are noted in parentheses See parenthesis. parentheses - See left parenthesis, right parenthesis. . Means of young adult outcome measures. Table 3. Parameter (1) Any value passed to a program by the user or by another program in order to customize the program for a particular purpose. A parameter may be anything; for example, a file name, a coordinate, a range of values, a money amount or a code of some kind. Estimates and Associated Standard Errors for Models Relating Adjustment and Victimization Status Model: Dependent variable F-value [R.sup.2] Model: Young adult emotional tone 6.47(*) .08 Emotional tone: Grade 9 Violent coercion Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion 6.83(*)(a) Model: Young adult depression 5.79(*) .08 Emotional tone: Grade 9 Violent coercion Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion 0.74 Model: Young adult self-esteem 15.18(*) .18 Self-esteem: Grade 9 Violent coercion Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion 9.53(*) Model: Young adult body image 5.19(*) .07 Self-esteem: Grade 9 Violent coercion Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion 3.00+ Model: Young adult sexual-esteem 4.19(*) .06 Self-esteem: Grade 9 Violent coercion Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion 2.49 Model: Young adult sexual-depression 4.86(*) .07 Emotional tone: Grade 9 Violent coercion Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion 0.15 Model: Young adult quality of 5.45(*) .09 romantic relationship Self-esteem: Grade 9 Violent coercion Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion 0.99 Model: Dependent variable Parameter Estimate Model: Young adult emotional tone 0.20(*) Emotional tone: Grade 9 -0.50(*) Violent coercion 0.06 Nonviolent coercion Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult depression Emotional tone: Grade 9 -0.10(*) Violent coercion 0.22(*) Nonviolent coercion 0.12+ Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult self-esteem Self-esteem: Grade 9 0.36(*) Violent coercion -0.41(*) Nonviolent coercion 0.00 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult body image Self-esteem: Grade 9 0.31(*) Violent coercion -0.44(*) Nonviolent coercion -0.07 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult sexual-esteem Self-esteem: Grade 9 0.35(*) Violent coercion -0.73(*) Nonviolent coercion -0.22 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult sexual-depression Emotional tone: Grade 9 -0.35(*) Violent coercion 0.47 Nonviolent coercion 0.64(*) Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult quality of romantic relationship Self-esteem: Grade 9 0.40(*) Violent coercion -0.65(*) Nonviolent coercion -0.34+ Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Dependent variable Standard Error p-value Model: Young adult emotional tone .0023 Emotional tone: Grade 9 .06 .0016 Violent coercion .19 .0095 Nonviolent coercion .13 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion .0096 Model: Young adult depression .0008 Emotional tone: Grade 9 .03 .0025 Violent coercion .10 .0303 Nonviolent coercion .07 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult self-esteem .0001 Self-esteem: Grade 9 .07 .0001 Violent coercion .12 .0007 Nonviolent coercion .08 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion .0003 Model: Young adult body image .0018 Self-esteem: Grade 9 .11 .0041 Violent coercion .19 .0219 Nonviolent coercion .13 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult sexual-esteem .0066 Self-esteem: Grade 9 .16 .0357 Violent coercion .30 .0143 Nonviolent coercion .20 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult sexual-depression .0028 Emotional tone: Grade 9 .13 .0059 Violent coercion .38 Nonviolent coercion .26 .0160 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Model: Young adult quality of romantic relationship .0013 Self-esteem: Grade 9 .15 .0075 Violent coercion .28 .0217 Nonviolent coercion .19 Violent vs. nonviolent coercion Note. Parameter estimates controlled for Grade 9 adjustment. (a) A partial F-Statistic from the Multi Parameter Hypothesis Test. (*) p < .05. + p < .10. Emotional tone. The model used to predict young adult emotional tone included Grade 9 emotional tone and dummy variables for violent and nonviolent coercion. Grade 9 emotional tone and violent sexual coercion significantly predicted young adult emotional tone, with violently coerced women (M = 3.32) reporting lower emotional tone than the never victimized group (M = 3.84). Additionally, the nonviolent and violent coercion groups were significantly different, with the violently coerced group having lower emotional tone than the nonviolent coercion group (M = 3.92). Thus, violent coercion was associated with worse emotional tone than either no victimization or nonviolent coercion. Depression. The model used to predict young adult depression included Grade 9 emotional tone along with violent and nonviolent sexual coercion. Grade 9 emotional tone and violent coercion significantly predicted young adult depression. The positive relationship between violent coercion and depression indicated that the violently coerced group (M = 2.14) reported greater depression than the never victimized group (M = 1.91). Self-esteem. The model used to predict young adult self-esteem included Grade 9 self-esteem and dummy variables for violent and nonviolent coercion. Grade 9 self-esteem and violent coercion significantly predicted young adult self-esteem; that is, the violently coerced group (M = 2.83) had lower adult self-esteem than the never victimized group (M = 3.29), even with prior self-esteem controlled. Additionally, the violently coerced group had significantly lower self-esteem than the nonviolently coerced group (M = 3.28). Body image. The model used to predict young adult body image included Grade 9 self-esteem and dummy variables for violent and nonviolent coercion. Grade 9 self-esteem and violent coercion each significantly predicted young adult body image. The relation between violent coercion and body image was negative, indicating that the violently coerced group (M = 3.28) had lower body image than the never victimized group (M = 3.78). Sexual esteem. Grade 9 self-esteem, violent coercion, and nonviolent coercion were used to predict young adult sexual esteem. Both Grade 9 self-esteem and violent coercion significantly predicted young adult sexual esteem. The relation of violent coercion to sexual esteem was negative, indicating that the violently coerced group (M = 4.91) had lower sexual esteem than the never victimized group (M = 5.72). Sexual depression. The model used to predict young adult sexual depression included Grade 9 emotional tone and dummy variables for violent and nonviolent coercion. Grade 9 emotional tone and coerced sex each significantly predicted young adult sexual depression. The positive relation between nonviolent coercion and sexual depression indicated that the nonviolent coercion group (M = 3.02) had higher sexual depression than the never victimized group (M = 2.44). Quality of current romantic relationship. The model used to predict the quality of romantic relationships included Grade 9 self-esteem and dummy variables for violent and nonviolent coercion. Grade 9 self-esteem and violent coercion significantly predicted young adult quality of romantic relationship. The negative association between violent coercion and relationship quality indicated that the violently coerced group (M = 5.45) had lower quality relationships than the never victimized group (M = 6.18). According to this model, violent coercion predicted young adult relationship quality, controlling for adolescent reports of self-esteem. To summarize sum·ma·rize intr. & tr.v. sum·ma·rized, sum·ma·riz·ing, sum·ma·riz·es To make a summary or make a summary of. sum , these analyses revealed numerous effects of sexual victimization, especially victimization resulting from violent coercion. Violent coercion was associated with poorer functioning in the areas of emotional tone, depression, self-esteem, body image, sexual esteem, and quality of romantic relationships, whereas nonviolent coercion was associated with greater sexual depression. Furthermore, women who reported violent coercion showed poorer emotional tone and self-esteem than women who reported only nonviolent forms of coercion. Type of Coercion and Subsequent Adjustment A similar analysis strategy was used to determine the relative impact of different types of sexual coercion on women's adjustment. First, adolescent emotional tone and self-esteem were examined in simple regression models, with the most highly predictive variable retained in subsequent analyses. Next, the adjustment control variable and dummy variables representing substance-related coercion, external psychological manipulation, and violent coercion (with internal psychological pressure as the reference group), were included in models predicting young adult outcomes. Multi-parameter hypothesis tests were employed to compare the remaining three groups with each other. Means and standard deviations of the outcome variables by type of victimization appear in Table 4. Results of significant regression models are summarized in Table 5. Table 4. Means of Young Adult Outcomes by Type of Sexual Victimization Experience
Internal Substance
Psychological Related
Pressure Coercion
Measure n = 23 n = 15
Emotional tone 3.89 4.33
(0.6) (0.8)
Depression 2.08 1.86
(0.5) (0.5)
Anger 3.34 2.80
(0.8) (1.2)
Self-esteem 3.33 3.54
(0.5) (0.5)
Body Image 3.78 3.83
(0.6) (0.9)
Assertiveness 3.05 3.17
(0.7) (0.6)
Intimacy competence 3.86 2.96
(0.9) (0.6)
Sexual esteem 5.20 6.04
(1.0) (1.6)
Sexual depression 3.24 2.50
(1.6) (1.5)
Quality of romantic relationship 5.97 5.89
(1.2) (1.1)
External
Psychological Violent
Manipulation Coercion
Measure n = 10 n = 19
Emotional tone 3.39 3.32
(0.6) (0.9)
Depression 2.12 2.14
(0.5) (0.5)
Anger 3.51 3.67
(0.5) (1.0)
Self-esteem 2.79 2.83
(0.5) (0.6)
Body Image 3.27 3.28
(0.3) (0.8)
Assertiveness 2.60 2.75
(0.4) (0.7)
Intimacy competence 2.44 2.80
(0.9) (1.0)
Sexual esteem 5.23 4.91
(1.4) (1.2)
Sexual depression 3.30 2.95
(1.7) (1.6)
Quality of romantic relationship 5.30 5.45
(1.1) (1.4)
Note. Standard deviations are noted in parentheses. Means of young adult outcome measures. Table 5. Parameter Estimates and Associated Standard Errors for Models Relating Adjustment and Type of Sexual Victimization
Model: Dependent variable F-value
Model: Young adult emotional tone 5.39(*)
Emotional tone: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological 5.76(*)(a)
Substance vs. violent coercion 11.95(*)
External psychological vs. violent coercion 0.25
Model: Young adult anger 3.15(*)
Emotional tone: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological 1.67
Substance vs. violent coercion 5.50(*)
External psychological vs. violent coercion 0.49
Model: Young adult self-esteem 8.93(*)
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological 9.56(*)
Substance vs. violent coercion 13.44(*)
External psychological vs. violent coercion 0.00
Model: Young adult assertiveness 2.41(+)
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological 4.00(*)
Substance vs. violent coercion 3.02(+)
External psychological vs. violent coercion 0.32
Model: Young Adult Sexual-esteem 1.77
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological 2.14
Substance vs. violent coercion 6.13(*)
External psychological vs. violent coercion 0.44
Model: Dependent variable [R.sup.2]
Model: Young adult emotional tone .26
Emotional tone: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult anger .17
Emotional tone: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult self-esteem .37
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult assertiveness .13
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young Adult Sexual-esteem .10
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Parameter
Model: Dependent variable Estimate
Model: Young adult emotional tone
Emotional tone: Grade 9 0.22(+)
Substance related coercion 0.43(+)
External psychological manipulation -0.34
Violent coercion -0.49(*)
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult anger
Emotional tone: Grade 9 -0.29(*)
Substance related coercion -0.53(+)
External psychological manipulation -0.04
Violent coercion 0.21
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult self-esteem
Self-esteem: Grade 9 0.42(*)
Substance related coercion 0.20
External psychological manipulation -0.43(*)
Violent coercion -0.43(*)
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult assertiveness
Self-esteem: Grade 9 0.23
Substance related coercion 0.11
External psychological manipulation -0.39(+)
Violent coercion -0.26
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young Adult Sexual-esteem
Self-esteem: Grade 9 0.12
Substance related coercion 0.84(+)
External psychological manipulation 0.06(+)
Violent coercion -0.27
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Standard
Model: Dependent variable Error
Model: Young adult emotional tone
Emotional tone: Grade 9 .12
Substance related coercion .25
External psychological manipulation .30
Violent coercion .24
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult anger
Emotional tone: Grade 9 .14
Substance related coercion .30
External psychological manipulation .35
Violent coercion .28
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult self-esteem
Self-esteem: Grade 9 .13
Substance related coercion .16
External psychological manipulation .19
Violent coercion .16
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult assertiveness
Self-esteem: Grade 9 .16
Substance related coercion .20
External psychological manipulation .23
Violent coercion .19
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young Adult Sexual-esteem
Self-esteem: Grade 9 .35
Substance related coercion .43
External psychological manipulation .49
Violent coercion .40
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Dependent variable p-value
Model: Young adult emotional tone .0009
Emotional tone: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion .0446
Substance vs. external psychological .0194
Substance vs. violent coercion .0010
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult anger .0202
Emotional tone: Grade 9 .0421
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion .0222
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult self-esteem .0001
Self-esteem: Grade 9 .0025
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation .0277
Violent coercion .0075
Substance vs. external psychological .0030
Substance vs. violent coercion .0005
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young adult assertiveness
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological .0500
Substance vs. violent coercion
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Model: Young Adult Sexual-esteem
Self-esteem: Grade 9
Substance related coercion
External psychological manipulation
Violent coercion
Substance vs. external psychological
Substance vs. violent coercion .0160
External psychological vs. violent coercion
Note. Parameter estimates controlled for Grade 9 adjustment. (a) A partial F-Statistic from the Multi Parameter Hypothesis Test. (*) p < .05. (+) p < .10. Emotional tone. The model used to predict young adult emotional tone included Grade 9 emotional tone, substance-related coercion, external psychological manipulation, and violent coercion. Violent coercion significantly predicted young adult emotional tone. The latter effect was negative, indicating that women who had experienced the threat or use of physical violence (M = 3.22) reported poorer emotional tone than those who had experienced only internal psychological pressure to have sex (M = 3.89). In addition, women who had experienced substance-related coercion (M = 4.33) reported higher emotional tone than women who had experienced external psychological manipulation (M = 3.39) or physical violence (M = 3.22). Anger. The model for young adult anger included Grade 9 emotional tone and the three coercion dummy variables. Grade 9 emotional tone predicted young adult anger, but the three dummy variables were not significant, indicating that the women in these groups did not differ from those who had experienced only internal psychological pressure. However, the multi-parameter hypothesis test revealed a group difference between the substance-related coercion group and the violent coercion group. Women who experienced violent coercion (M = 3.67) reported higher levels of anger than women who experienced substance-related coercion (M = 2.80). Self-esteem. The model used to predict young adult self-esteem included Grade 9 self-esteem and dummy variables for substance-related coercion, external psychological manipulation, and violent coercion. Three of the independent variables, Grade 9 self-esteem, external psychological manipulation, and violent coercion significantly predicted young adult self-esteem. Specifically, women who experienced either external psychological manipulation (M = 2.79) or violent coercion (M = 2.83) reported lower self-esteem than women who only experienced internal psychological pressure (M = 3.33). Additionally, women who experienced violent coercion or external psychological manipulation reported lower self-esteem than those who experienced substance-related coercion (M = 3.54). Assertiveness. The model used to predict young adult assertiveness included Grade 9 self-esteem and dummy variables for substance-related coercion, external psychological manipulation, and violent coercion. A significant difference was found between the substance-related coercion and external psychological manipulation groups, indicating that women in the substance-related coercion group (M = 3.17) had higher levels of assertiveness than women who had experienced external psychological manipulation (m = 2.60). Sexual esteem. The model used to predict young adult sexual esteem included Grade 9 self-esteem and dummy variables for substance-related coercion, external psychological manipulation, and violent coercion. A significant difference was found between the substance-related coercion and violent coercion groups, indicating that women in the substance-related coercion group (M = 6.04) had higher sexual esteem than women who had experienced physical violence (M = 4.91). In summary, these analyses revealed differences in the adjustment levels of women who experienced different types of sexual coercion. Compared to those who experienced only internal psychological pressure, women who were violently coerced reported poorer emotional tone and self-esteem, whereas women who were psychologically manipulated reported poorer self-esteem. Compared to those who reported substance-related coercion, women who reported violent coercion had lower emotional tone, self-esteem, and sexual esteem along with higher levels of anger; women who experienced external psychological manipulation reported lower emotional tone, lower self-esteem, and lower assertiveness. DISCUSSION The present study provides strong support for the notion that sexual victimization has implications for how a woman subsequently feels about herself and her life. The finding that women who reported unwanted sexual experiences exhibited poorer psychological and social/relational adjustment reinforces the results of prior studies that have linked sexual victimization to lower self-esteem (Murphy et al., 1988; Zweig et al., 1997), increased depression and anger (Erickson & Rapkin, 1991; Siegel et al., 1990; Zweig et al., 1997), and problems with romantic relationships (Jehu & Gazan, 1983). However, in contrast to earlier studies, the present study included controls for adolescent psychological adjustment, yielding stronger evidence for the causal causal /cau·sal/ (kaw´z'l) pertaining to, involving, or indicating a cause. causal relating to or emanating from cause. role of sexual victimization in producing negative outcomes. The present findings extend the range of psychological dimensions that have been linked to sexual victimization: Body-image, sexual esteem, and sexual depression all appeared to be affected by sexual coercion. These findings also suggest avenues for future research. For example, some previous studies have linked sexual victimization to weight problems (Erickson & Rapkin, 1991) and eating disorders (Kearney-Cooke, 1988). The present findings suggest the need to examine the possible mediating role of poor body image in these relationships. Similarly, the finding of lower sexual esteem and higher sexual depression among coerced women parallel the relationships that have been previously identified between victimization and reduced sexual interest and satisfaction (Siegel et al., 1990; Zweig, 1995). At the same time, it should be noted that several adjustment indicators were strongly intercorrelated (e.g., self-esteem, emotional tone, and body image). The evidence of shared variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality between these indicators suggests that they may not all represent truly distinct outcomes. Results of the initial regressions, which compared women who were never victimized with those who were violently coerced and those who experienced some nonviolent form of coercion, raise an important caveat. With only one exception, all of the significant differences between victimized and nonvictimized women involved women who had been violently coerced. Moreover, in two instances (for self-esteem and emotional tone) women who were violently coerced exhibited significantly lower well-being than women who had experienced nonviolent forms of coercion. These results suggest that violent coercion has more pervasive and powerful effects on women's psychosocial adjustment than coercion that does not involve violence or the threat of violence. Given this pattern, it would seem critical to distinguish violent coercion from other forms of sexual coercion in future research. Prior studies have yielded inconsistent findings about the relative impact of violent and nonviolent victimization on women's adjustment. Consonant with the present results, Siegel et al. (1990) reported that women who were physically threatened during their sexual assault experience were more likely to report depression and anger problems than women who were pressured by persuasion. In contrast, Zweig and colleagues (1997) reported that women who were pressured to have sex had higher depression and anger scores than women who were forced to have sex. Finally, Mynatt and Allgeier (1990) reported that women who were coerced by psychological means reported lower levels of adjustment than women coerced by physical means. However, women who suffered greater physical injury also reported lower levels of adjustment than women who did not suffer physical injury. Thus, the severity of the negative consequences following violent coercion (and possibly the relative impact of violent coercion and psychological manipulation) may depend on whether physical injury occurred. The inconsistent findings may also reflect differences in measures. For example, Zweig et al. (1997) asked participants if they had experienced sexual victimization using yes/no questions about rape Ask a Lawyer Question Country: United States of America State: Florida I need to know everything about rape. My mother wants to press rape charges against my 15 yr old boyfriend whom is 6 months younger than I am. , sexual abuse, and sexual assault, and a frequency count of intercourse experiences in response to pressure. It is not clear what kinds of coercion (violent or nonviolent) actually occurred during these victimizing episodes. In contrast, the study by Siegel et al. (1990) and the present study used more specific questions to assess the nature of the experience. For example, participants reported information such as whether or not the perpetrator threatened them with a weapon, held them down, or used verbal humiliation Verbal humiliation is when a person humiliates another intensely through disparaging comments. This has two main aspects:
The second set of regressions, which provided more detailed information on the effects of different kinds of sexual coercion, revealed that violent coercion is not the only type of sexual coercion with detrimental det·ri·men·tal adj. Causing damage or harm; injurious. det  ri·men psychological effects. These regressions compared the
effects of internal psychological pressure, substance-related coercion,
external psychological manipulation, and violent coercion to determine
which kinds of experiences were more debilitating. The results of these
analyses indicate that where significant differences emerge, violent
coercion and psychological manipulation are both more debilitating than
either internal pressure or substance-related coercion. Compared to the
latter groups, violently coerced women showed poorer functioning in six
instances and psychologically manipulated women showed poorer
functioning in four instances, indicating that the effects of violent
coercion may be somewhat more pervasive. However, in no case did the
adjustment of violently coerced women differ significantly from that of
psychologically manipulated women. Thus, one form of nonviolent coercion
(i.e., external psychological manipulation) appears to be as
psychologically debilitating as violent coercion. This indicates a need
to distinguish both violently coerced and psychologically manipulated
women in future research. Moreover, these groups of women may need to be
targeted for intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. , since they seem to suffer the most in terms
of psychological well-being psychological well-being Research A nebulous legislative term intended to ensure that certain categories of lab animals, especially primates, don't 'go nuts' as a result of experimental design or conditions .Why might women who are violently coerced and women who are psychologically manipulated be similarly affected psychologically and suffer more adverse consequences than women who experience only internal psychological pressure or substance-related coercion? One explanation is that this is an artifact A distortion in an image or sound caused by a limitation or malfunction in the hardware or software. Artifacts may or may not be easily detectable. Under intense inspection, one might find artifacts all the time, but a few pixels out of balance or a few milliseconds of abnormal sound of the way we constructed our categories for types of coercion.(5) Specifically, we classified women based on the most severe form of coercion experienced, which meant that women in the more severe categories could potentially have experienced more forms of coercion. If the number of types of coercive experiences was the critical factor producing the findings, we would have expected violently coerced and psychologically manipulated women to have experienced significantly more different kinds of coercion than the other two groups. Although this pattern was obtained, additional findings refute re·fute tr.v. re·fut·ed, re·fut·ing, re·futes 1. To prove to be false or erroneous; overthrow by argument or proof: refute testimony. 2. that explanation--the substance-related coercion group also experienced significantly more types of coercion than the internal psychological pressure group; however, they did not experience worse outcomes. Thus, although we cannot entirely rule out this explanation, it seems unlikely. A second explanation involves self-blame. Self-blame has been found to mediate MEDIATE, POWERS. Those incident to primary powers, given by a principal to his agent. For example, the general authority given to collect, receive and pay debts due by or to the principal is a primary power. the relationship between victimization and negative psychological outcomes, with higher self-blame being associated with poorer outcomes (Meyer & Taylor, 1986; Wyatt, Notgrass, & Newcomb, 1990). Moreover, prior research has shown that women who are raped may feel they played a role in their victimization. Two types of self-blame have been documented for women who experience rape: (a) Characterological self-blame is when a woman feels responsible for her victimization due to stable aspects of herself, and (b) behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. self-blame is when a woman feels responsible for her victimization due to her own behaviors (Frazier & Schauben, 1994; Meyer & Taylor, 1986). These two types of self-blame, one that focuses on the woman's identity and one that focuses on her behaviors, may be directly related to later problems with self-perceptions and moods. It is not known whether women who have been subjected to other forms of unwanted sexual activity experience similar levels or types of blame, but it is possible that self-blame is higher among those who have been violently coerced or psychologically manipulated to have sex than among those who have experienced only internal psychological pressure or substance-related coercion. Women who experience pressure from themselves or have experiences while intoxicated in·tox·i·cate v. in·tox·i·cat·ed, in·tox·i·cat·ing, in·tox·i·cates v.tr. 1. To stupefy or excite by the action of a chemical substance such as alcohol. 2. may not feel that they played a role in a victimizing experience. Examining this possibility could be a fruitful fruit·ful adj. 1. a. Producing fruit. b. Conducive to productivity; causing to bear in abundance: fruitful soil. 2. avenue for future studies. Yet a third explanation relates to the level of humiliation and degradation DEGRADATION, punishment, ecclesiastical law. A censure by which a clergy man is deprived of his holy orders, which he had as a priest or deacon. experienced with different forms of sexual coercion. It seems plausible that women who have unwanted sex because they feel obligated to or want to please their partner (internal psychological pressure) might be able to rationalize ra·tion·al·ize v. 1. To make rational. 2. To devise self-satisfying but false or inconsistent reasons for one's behavior, especially as an unconscious defense mechanism through which irrational acts or feelings are made to appear the experience in such a way that they do not feel humiliated hu·mil·i·ate tr.v. hu·mil·i·at·ed, hu·mil·i·at·ing, hu·mil·i·ates To lower the pride, dignity, or self-respect of. See Synonyms at degrade. or degraded |