A Cognitive Career Course: From Theory to Practice.A university career development course based on cognitive information-processing theory was assessed. Students who took the course showed a significant decrease in their negative career thoughts when the Career Thoughts Inventory (J. P. Sampson, G. W. Peterson, J. G. Lenz, R. C. Reardon, & D. E. Saunders Saun´ders n. 1. See Sandress. , 1996a) was used as a pretest pre·test n. 1. a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study. b. A test taken for practice. 2. and posttesr measure. The greatest decrease in negative thinking was found in students with the highest level of negative thinking at the beginning of the course. The specific components of negative career thinking--decision-making confusion and commitment anxiety--contributed significantly to the main effect. There were no significant interactions with ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic or sex. Various measures have clearly demonstrated that course-based career interventions have been effective. Lent, Larkin, and Hasegawa (1986) reported that career-course interventions led to changes in career decision-making readiness constructs such as vocational identity (Remer, O'Neill, & Gohs, 1984), career indecision Indecision Buridan’s ass unable to decide between two haystacks, he would starve to death. [Fr. Philos.: Brewer Dictionary, 154] Cooke, Ebenezer his irresolution usually leads to catatonia. [Am. Lit. (Barker barker a term for an animal that does not usually bark which makes a violent respiratory effort, often during a convulsion, accompanied by a sound which roughly resembles a dog's bark. , 1981), and psychosocial development psychosocial development Psychiatry Progressive interaction between a person and her environment through stages beginning in infancy, ending in adulthood, which loosely parallels psychosexual development. See Cognitive development. (Stonewater & Daniels, 1983). In recent years, researchers have studied these and other variables and have continued to find significant effects from career-course interventions. Johnson and Smouse (1993) and Quinn and Lewis (1989) found significant relationships between a course and reduced career indecision. Hardesty (1991) reported a meta-analysis regarding the beneficial effects of career courses on career maturity and career decidedness. Career courses have also examined cognitive variables, for example, adding a cognitive restructuring Cognitive restructuring The process of replacing maladaptive thought patterns with constructive thoughts and beliefs. Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy cognitive restructuring, n component to a course (Wiseman, 1988) and examining cognitive resources (Remer et al., 1984). Although the general effectiveness of career courses has been documented (Folsom & Reardon, 2000; Oliver & Spokane, 1988), there is a need for research that evaluates the relationship between courses and specific cognitive and demographic variables, such as sex and ethnicity. Although career courses have generally not reported sex differences in outcomes, Rayman, Bernard, Holland, and Barnett (1983) found that whereas a career course produced gains in vocational identity for both men and women, men gained more before midterm exams Noun 1. midterm exam - an examination administered in the middle of an academic term midterm examination, midterm exam, examination, test - a set of questions or exercises evaluating skill or knowledge; "when the test was stolen the professor had to make a , and women gained more after midterm exams. Wachs (1986) reported that only women had higher scores in vocational identity after taking a career course. Halpern (1997) concluded that "the many questions about cognitive sex differences and similarities are a major area of interest" (pp. 1091-1092) in psychological research. We view questions about ethnicity in a similar way and included an examination of sex and ethnicity in this research study. Spokane and Oliver (1983) identified problems in the research literature relevant to the evaluation of career interventions. Some interventions are unstructured, and some are highly controlled; some are based on a single integrating theory, and others are atheoretical a·the·o·ret·i·cal adj. Unrelated to or lacking a theoretical basis. ; and output and outcome measures are sometimes not clearly linked to the treatment interventions. 1. Does the nature of students' career thoughts change from the beginning to the end of a career course, and, if so, are the changes different according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the initial level of career thinking? This study seeks to correct for these problems and to add knowledge to the field by examining the impact of a course that is based on cognitive information-processing theory in reducing negative or dysfunctional dys·func·tion also dis·func·tion n. Abnormal or impaired functioning, especially of a bodily system or social group. dys·func career thoughts. This study is unique because the course intervention and output measures are based on an emerging theory of career development. The following three research questions were investigated: 2. Do career thoughts related to decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and external conflict change from the beginning to the end of a career course? 3. Is student sex or ethnicity, or both, related to the nature of career thoughts during the period of the career course? Background of the Study The career course examined in this study is based on cognitive information-processing theory (CIP (1) (Common Isochronous Packet) The packet format used in time-based (real time) FireWire transmission. See FireWire, IEC 61883 and mLAN. (2) (Common Industrial P ; Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 1991; Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, & Lenz, 1996), which is incorporated into the book Career Planning and Development: A Comprehensive Approach (Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, & Peterson, 2000a) and the related student manual (Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, & Peterson, 2000b). CIP theory focuses on career problem-solving and decision-making skills, and the model comprises three domains, represented by a pyramid. The foundation of the pyramid symbolizes the knowledge domain, which includes self-knowledge and occupational knowledge. The middle level of the CIP pyramid represents the decision-making skills domain, which includes generic information-processing skills essential in gathering and using information to solve problems and to make decisions. These skills include five CASVE phases for receiving external or internal signals that a gap exists between one's current situation and one's desired si tuation. The five phases are Communication (receiving internal or external signals of a gap between one's current and desired situation), Analysis (interrelating problem components), Synthesis (generating alternatives), Valuing (prioritizing options or alternatives), and Execution (forming an action plan to close the gap). At the top of the pyramid is the executive processing domain, which relates to metacognitions, such as self-talk, self-awareness, and control and monitoring, that govern the choosing and sequencing of cognitive strategies used to make career decisions. A lead instructor and co-instructors teach the class, which has an instructor/ student ratio of 1:8-12. Unit I, Career Concepts and Applications, focuses on self-knowledge, knowledge of options, and decision making. Instructors and students customize the course's learning activities by jointly writing an individual action plan. Assignments include writing an autobiography autobiography: see biography. autobiography Biography of oneself narrated by oneself. Little autobiographical literature exists from antiquity and the Middle Ages; with a handful of exceptions, the form begins to appear only in the 15th century. , completing the Self-Directed Search (Holland, 1994) and a skills assessment activity, using computer-assisted career guidance systems, and writing an occupational research paper. The concepts of decision making and metacognitions are introduced in this unit, and students have the opportunity to apply this knowledge through setting a career goal or goals to work on during the semester se·mes·ter n. One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year. [German, from Latin (cursus) s . Students also complete the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI (Computer Telephone Integration) Combining data with voice systems in order to enhance telephone services. For example, automatic number identification (ANI) allows a caller's records to be retrieved from the database while the call is routed to the appropriate party. ; Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996a), which helps them identify their levels of negative thinking that may be impeding im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped their career problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. and decision making. Chapter 5, "Thin king About My Career Decisions," in the textbook Development and Planning: A Comprehensive Approach (Reardon et al., 2000a) and related class activities and assignments provide instruction on the process of refraining negative metacognitions into more positive thoughts for career problem solving and decision making. Students can also use Improving Your Career Thoughts: A Workbook work·book n. 1. A booklet containing problems and exercises that a student may work directly on the pages. 2. A manual containing operating instructions, as for an appliance or machine. 3. for the Career Thoughts Inventory (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996c) to reduce negative career thoughts. Unit II, Social Conditions Affecting Career Development, focuses on current social, economic, family, and organizational changes affecting the career planning process and the need for students to develop more complex cognitive schema to solve career problems. Unit III of the course focuses on employability skills and strategies for implementing academic/career plans. Assignments include two information interview reports, the completion of a resume and cover letter, and a final paper that helps students integrate what they have learned into the career problem-solving and decision-making process. For further information about the course, readers may review the case study report by Reardon and Wright (1999) or the course syllabus A headnote; a short note preceding the text of a reported case that briefly summarizes the rulings of the court on the points decided in the case. The syllabus appears before the text of the opinion. at http:// www.career.fsu.edu/student/current/choose_a_major/sdss_3340/syllabus. html. The purpose of this study was to learn more about how our career course changed the career thinking of students. Specifically, we wanted to know if student sex and ethnicity were associated with the nature of career thoughts, if there were overall changes in the nature of career thoughts from the beginning to the end of the career course, and if some kinds of career thoughts changed more than others. Method Participants The study involved 181 undergraduates at a southern research university. The sample consisted of 126 women (70%) and 55 men (30%) from nine course sections during 1997-1998. Freshmen made up 18% of the sample, sophomores 50% of the sample, and juniors and seniors represented 15% and 17% of the sample, respectively. Their ages ranged from 18 to 39 years with a mean of 19.9 (SD = 2.4). Ethnic diversity of the sample was proportional to the general student population, including American Indian American Indian or Native American or Amerindian or indigenous American Any member of the various aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, with the exception of the Eskimos (Inuit) and the Aleuts. (1%), African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. (13%), Hispanic American (4%), Caucasian (75%), other (3%), and not classified (3%). Instrument The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) was used to assess the students' content and degree of negative career thinking. The instrument is based on cognitive information-processing theory (Peterson et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996) and cognitive therapy cognitive therapy n. Any of a variety of techniques in psychotherapy that utilize guided self-discovery, imaging, self-instruction, and related forms of elicited cognitions as the principal mode of treatment. (Beck, Emery emery: see corundum. emery Granular rock consisting of a mixture of the mineral corundum (aluminum oxide, Al2O3) and iron oxides such as magnetite (Fe3O4) or hematite (Fe2O3). , & Greenberg, 1985) in relation to career problem solving and decision making. The CTI yields a total score, which is used as a global indicator of dysfunctional career problem solving and decision making, and three construct scale scores: Decision Making Confusion (DMC DMC Devil May Cry (video game) DMC Detroit Medical Center DMC Darryl McDaniels (rapper) DMC Destination Management Company DMC Del Mar College (Corpus Christi, TX) ), Commitment Anxiety (CA), and External Conflict (EC). The DMC scale measures an inability to begin or to continue the decision-making process because of impairing emotions or a lack of knowledge, or both, about the process of decision making. The CA scale denotes an inability to commit to a specific career choice and the presence of generalized gen·er·al·ized adj. 1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain. 2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized. 3. anxiety about the consequences of making a career decision. The EC scale represents a person's negative thinking regarding balancing one's own perceptions against the perceptions of significant others related to making career choices. The internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. coefficients for the various scales range from .74 to .97 and stability coefficients range from .74 to .86 (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996b). The CTI items and scales also possess content, construct, and criterion-related validity at generally accepted levels (Sampson et al., 1996b). Because CTI items are all written as negative statements in the same direction, we examined the potential problem of a testing effect The testing effect refers to enhanced memory resulting from the act of retrieving information, as compared to simply reading or hearing the information. The effect is also sometimes referred to as 'retrieval practice' or 'test-enhanced learning'. that might confound con·found tr.v. con·found·ed, con·found·ing, con·founds 1. To cause to become confused or perplexed. See Synonyms at puzzle. 2. the effects of the experimental stimulus. Taking the pretest could have influenced students' responses to the posttest post·test n. A test given after a lesson or a period of instruction to determine what the students have learned. , thus compromising the reliability and validity of the CTI as an instrument in this study. The potential existence of a response set in CTI results was tested by item statistics for all students (N= 181) for within-subjects. An F test contrasting the [F.sub.max] variance between the pretest and the posttest revealed a critical ratio of 1.60, indicating no significant difference in the variance between the two. Thus, the dispersion dispersion, in chemistry dispersion, in chemistry, mixture in which fine particles of one substance are scattered throughout another substance. A dispersion is classed as a suspension, colloid, or solution. remained the same across the two testing sessions. In the present study, the internal consistency of the CTI total and the three construct scales was determined by calculating coefficient coefficient /co·ef·fi·cient/ (ko?ah-fish´int) 1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities. 2. alphas for the precourse and postcourse CTI scores. Coefficient alphas for the CT! total and construct scale scores, pretest and posttest, are presented in Table 1. The results, similar to findings reported by Sampson et al. (1996c), suggest that the CTI total and the DMC, CA, and EC scales are internally consistent in the pretest and posttest. Next, we assessed the pretest and posttest intercorrelation coefficients among the CT! scales. Moderate correlations were found among the pretest scales (.38-.65) and posttest scales (.51-.64). The pretest-posttest correlation on the students' CT! total score was .59. The correlation of the DMC pretest and posttest scales was .55, the correlation of the CA pretest and posttest scales was .57, and the correlation of the EC pretest and posttest scales was .50. These moderate but significant positive correlations Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 direct correlation suggest that the three factors are related, yet distinct, in terms of the global construct under investigation in this study. Procedure During the first week of the course, each student completed a research consent form, a demographic questionnaire, and the CTI on a scannable form. No feedback was provided about the CTI results. In the third week of the course, students completed the booklet form of the CTI as part of their class assignments; this version was interpreted with the student in an individual meeting with an instructor and returned the student for his or her use. Typically, these meetings included a brief review of the CTI's purpose and the identification of negative or problematic thoughts that might interfere with effective career problem solving or decision making. In some instances, the instructor referred students the CTI workbook (Sampson et al., 1996c). Finally, during the last week of the semester, students again completed the research version of the CTI as a posttest, as well as course evaluation A course evaluation is a paper or electronic questionnaire, which requires a written or selected response answer to a series of questions in order to evaluate the instruction of a given course. instruments. Results Changes in Career Thoughts Our first question involved the possible influence of a career-planning course on changes in dysfunctional career thoughts as measured by the CTI total score. The analyses used regarding this question were one-group repeated measures (precourse test, postcourse test) multivariate analysis multivariate analysis, n a statistical approach used to evaluate multiple variables. multivariate analysis, n a set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. of variance (MANOVA MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of the Variance ) design (see Table 1). We performed a 3 (level of dysfunctional career thinking) x2 (pretest vs. posttest) MANOVA with repeated measures, using the CTI tal score. The within-subject variable was the CTI total score. The MANOVA revealed a significant effect for the career course on the CTI total score. We found a significant multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model. career course effect on the students' CTI total score, F(1, 178) = 132.70, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .43. The CTI total score postcourse (M = 38.87, SD = 20.18) was significantly lower than the precourse score (M = 53.66, SD = 19.64), indicating reduced dysfunctional thinking about career problem solving and decision making. We also wanted examine the influence of the level of precourse career dysfunctional thinking on the CTI total scores at the end of the course. Students were assigned one of three groups (high, medium, and low) based on their precourse CTI total scores. The average scores for the high-, medium-, and low-level groups were 72.51 (SD = 8.81), 56.93 (SD = 4.49), and 30.80 (SD = 13.40), respectively. There was a significant interaction between the Level of Career Dysfunctional Thinking x Career Course, F(2, 178) 10.57, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .11, indicating that the effect of the career course was not the same for the three pretreatment pretreatment, n the protocols required before beginning therapy, usually of a diagnostic nature; before treatment. pretreatment estimate, n See predetermination. levels of negative thinking. The high-, medium-, and low-level groups reduced their CTI total scores by 20.15 points (SD = 16.62), 17.5 points (SD = 18.05), and 6.51 (SD = 16.80), respectively. Planned pairwise contrasts among the groups provided the most direct test of the career course influence on the change in career dysfunctional thinking. As shown in Table 1, pairwise contrasts revealed that the high-level group had significantly larger changes in CTI total scores than did the medium-level group, and the medium-level group had significantly larger changes than did the low-level group. Changes in Three Kinds of Career Thoughts The second research question sought examine in what ways career thoughts related decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and external conflict change from the beginning the end of a career course. The analyses regarding this question used one-group repeated measures (pretest, posttest) MANOVA design. We performed a 3 (level of dysfunctional career thinking) x 2 (precourse vs. postcourse) MANOVA with repeated measures, using the DMC, CA, and EC scales of the CTI. The main effect of the career course was significant, F(3, 176) = 50.26, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .46. Students who completed this career-planning course significantly reduced their dysfunctional career thoughts. Specifically, the univariate tests of the three CTI scales indicated a significant reduction of dysfunctional career thinking. Students experienced significant changes in DMC, F(1, 178) = l22.68,p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .41; CA, F(1, 178) = 80.40, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .31; and EC, F(1, 178) = 8.98, p = .003, [[eta].sup.2] = .05. We also examined the influence of the precourse dysfunctional career level on postcourse dysfunctional thinking as measured by the DMC, CA, and EC scales of the CTI. Students were assigned to one of three groups (high, medium, and low) based on their precourse CTI total scores. The main effect of levels of dysfunctional career thinking was significant, F(6, 350) = 57.00, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .46; that is, the three groups established by the pretest scores were significantly different from one another on the posttest as measured by the DMC, CA, and EC scales. Univariate tests for the DMC scale, F(2, 178) = 143.25, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .62; for the CA scale, F(2, 178) = 65.65, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .42; and for the EC scale, F(2, 178) = 36.10, p < .003,12 = .29 were significant. Follow-up pairwise tests for the three precourse levels on the DMC, EC, and CA scales were conducted. Although the groups' mean scores on the three CTI scales were reduced in the posttest, the groups remained significantly different from one another at p < .001. The DMC, CA, and EC scale posttest means for the students in the high-level group were 11.43, 15.51, and 4.90, respectively. These means were significantly greater (p < .001) than the means for students in the medium-level group (8.48, 12.30, and 3.18, respectively). Likewise, the medium-level group's scale means were significantly greater (p < .001) than the low-level group's means (3.54, 8.69, and 2.36, respectively) on the DMC, CA, and EC scales. The interaction of Levels of Dysfunctional Career Thinking x Career Course was also significant, F(6, 350) = 8.62, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .13, indicating that the effect of the career course was not the same for all of the levels of dysfunctional career thinking. The univariate test for the DMC scale indicated a significant interaction, F(2, 178) = 24.63, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .22. Follow-up pairwise tests for DMC scales were significant at p < .001; that is, for the students in the high-level dysfunctional career-thoughts group, the career course significantly reduced DMC scores more than it did for students in the medium and low-level groups. Likewise, the medium-level group experienced a significantly greater (p < .001) reduction in DMC scores than did students in the low-level dysfunctional career-thoughts group. The mean reductions for the high-, medium-, and low-level groups on the DMC scale were 8.30, 5.57, and 0.78 points, respectively. Although the univariate test of the Levels of Career Dysfunction dysfunction /dys·func·tion/ (dis-funk´shun) disturbance, impairment, or abnormality of functioning of an organ.dysfunc´tional erectile dysfunction impotence (2). x Career Course on the CA scale was not significant, F(2, 178) = 2.83, p = ns, [[eta].sup.2] = .03, the univariate test for the EC scale indicated a significant interaction, F(2, 178) = 3.80, p = .024, [[eta].sup.2] = .04. Pairwise comparisons indicated that the high-level group had a greater reduction (M = .61, SD = 2.80) on their posttreatment EC scores than did the individuals in the medium-level (M = .98, SD = 2.47) and low-level (M = .78, SD = 5.12) groups. Likewise, the medium-level group experienced significantly greater changes (p < .001) on the EC scale than did the members of the low-level group. Changes in Career Thoughts Related to Sex and Ethnicity Using the pretreatment scores on the DMC, CA, and EC scales as dependent variables, we conducted a MANOVA to assess whether there were any significant initial differences between the students on the basis of sex or ethnicity. These scores were submitted to a 2 (sex) x 2 (ethnicity) x 2 (precourse, postcourse) repeated measures MANOVA. Analyses including sex and ethnicity as independent variables for the precourse and the postcourse revealed no sex or ethnicity effects, nor their interaction. The findings for sex were F(3, 175) = 1.00, p = ns; for ethnicity, F(3, 175) = 2.07, p = ns; and for their interaction, F(3, 175) = 1.08, p = ns. Discussion Although changes identified cannot be unequivocally attributed to the career course examined in this study because of threats to validity inherent in a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest only-group design, the results of this study suggest a positive relationship between a career course and cognitive variables. Students, especially those students who had higher levels of negative thoughts at the beginning of the course, showed a significant and dramatic reduction in their levels of negative thoughts at the completion of this course. The students in the high-level dysfunctional-career-thoughts group reduced their CTI total scores more than did the students in the medium- and low-level groups. These findings are important for career service providers and students. The reduction of negative career thoughts should enable students to become more successful in career decision making and in choosing a major or occupational goal. When students are experiencing negative thinking related to a lack of knowledge or impairing emotions, they may become discouraged and may engage in avoidance strategies instead of starting the career decision-making process. If they can learn about and develop a method for career decision making in the context of a career course, students may begin to engage in the decision-making cycle. Career thoughts related to commitment anxiety, when the student experiences an inability to commit to a specific career choice and has generalized anxiety about the consequence of making a career decision, can also accompany a major career decision. The student may be diligent dil·i·gent adj. Marked by persevering, painstaking effort. See Synonyms at busy. [Middle English, from Old French, from Latin d in gathering self and occupational knowledge; however, commitment anxiety may actually impede im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped the use of this knowledge for productive career problem solving and decision making. External conflict can be especially relevant to the execution of a decision or implementing a strategy to solve a problem. Students' scores on the EC scale were not as dramatically different from the pretest to the posttest in comparison with the scores on the DMC and CA scales. This result may be attributed to the smaller number of items on the scale, which lowers its reliability, or it may be related to the nature of the construct. Better self-knowledge, occupational knowledge, and decision-making skills may not ease the conflict between a student's personal and parental priorities. There were no differences in any of the CTI scale scores related to sex and ethnicity. In addition, the interactions with sex and ethnicity were not significant. These findings provide reassurance REASSURANCE. When an insurer is desirous of lessening his liability, he may procure some other insurer to insure him from loss, for the insurance he has made this is called reassurance. to career service providers that it may not be necessary to design special interventions for groups based solely on sex and ethnicity. Indeed, these data provide further support that the career thoughts construct is valid across different populations (Sampson et al., 1996b). However, caution should be exercised in generalizing the results of this study to all ethnicities because the sample did not include a large number of Asian American A·sian A·mer·i·can also A·sian-A·mer·i·can n. A U.S. citizen or resident of Asian descent. See Usage Note at Amerasian. A , Native American, or Hispanic students. One limitation of this study involves the inability to specify exactly which career interventions in the course led to the reductions in negative career thoughts. A three-credit career course may include up to 60 discrete interventions. Moreover, students may have reduced their negative thinking due to other experiences they had at the university or due to the maturation maturation /mat·u·ra·tion/ (mach-u-ra´shun) 1. the process of becoming mature. 2. attainment of emotional and intellectual maturity. 3. process. Many students who were enrolled in the class were from special student support programs (e.g., multicultural mul·ti·cul·tur·al adj. 1. Of, relating to, or including several cultures. 2. Of or relating to a social or educational theory that encourages interest in many cultures within a society rather than in only a mainstream culture. student support center, athletic department), and these students received additional tutoring and counseling. It is also unknown how many students actually received or used the GTI GTI Gas Technology Institute GTI Global Taxonomy Initiative GTI Good Time Interval GTI Guelph Turfgrass Institute GTI Green Theme International GTI Gordon Training International GTI Georgia Transportation Institute GTI Group Travel Insurance workbook (Sampson et al., 1996c) from their instructor. Additional research related to these findings is warranted. For example, the use of a control condition or a comparison treatment group would reduce threats to external validity External validity is a form of experimental validity.[1] An experiment is said to possess external validity if the experiment’s results hold across different experimental settings, procedures and participants. inherent in this study. Are there differences in course outcomes associated with course materials, instructor's interest in teaching, or student motivation to complete the course? Does most learning occur at the end of the course or at some other time? Which career interventions included in the course have the most impact? Results of such studies would enable career counselors to design more cost-effective career course interventions for college students. Corey A. Reed was an assistant director for Career Advising, Counseling, and Programming at the time this article was written and is now a doctoral student in counseling; Robert C. Reardon is a professor and director for Instruction, Research, and Evaluation; and Janet G. Lenz is the associate director for Career Advising, Counseling, and Programming, all at the Career Center, The Florida State University Florida State University, at Tallahassee; coeducational; chartered 1851, opened 1857. Present name was adopted in 1947. Special research facilities include those in nuclear science and oceanography. , Tallahassee. Stephen J. Leierer is an associate professor in the Department of Rehabilitation Counseling rehabilitation counseling, n counseling started in the United States in 1920 to assist individuals disabled by industrial accidents; originally included physical, psychologic, and occupational training; expanded over the next 70 years and laid the at Louisiana State University Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, generally known as Louisiana State University or LSU, is a public, coeducational university located in Baton Rouge, Louisiana and the main campus of the Louisiana State University System. Health Sciences Center in New Orleans New Orleans (ôr`lēənz –lənz, ôrlēnz`), city (2006 pop. 187,525), coextensive with Orleans parish, SE La., between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, 107 mi (172 km) by water from the river mouth; founded . The authors thank James P. Sampson Jr. and Gary Peterson for their comments on an earlier draft of this article. A longer version of this study report is available at http://www.career.fsu.edu/techcenter/TR-25.html. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Corey A. Reed, Career Center, University Center, Suite 4100, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 323062490 (e-mail creed@garnet garnet, name applied to a group of isomorphic minerals crystallizing in the cubic system. They are used chiefly as gems and as abrasives (as in garnet paper). .acns.fsu.edu). References Barker, S. B. (1981). An evaluation of the effectiveness of a college career guidance course. Journal of College Student Personnel College Student Personnel (CSP) is an academic discipline offered at the master’s and above level at several universities. A degree in this field often leads to a career in Student Affairs or Enrollment Management. , 22, 354-358. Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). 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Psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. and cognitive development in a career decision-making course. Journal of College Student Personnel, 24, 403-410. Wachs, P. M. (1986). Career planning course effect on vocational identity and related outcome measures (Doctoral dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion n. A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis. dissertation Noun 1. , Northern Illinois University , 1986). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(06A) 2031. Wiseman, B. K. (1988). The influence of a career course and a career course cognitive restructuring combination on self-efficacy, career decidedness and career indecision (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University Ohio State University, main campus at Columbus; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1870, opened 1873 as Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College, renamed 1878. There are also campuses at Lima, Mansfield, Marion, and Newark. , 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49(07A), 1708. TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics, Alpha Reliabilities, and FTest Results for Various Conditions of Negative Career Thinking. Condition M SD SEM [alpha] F CTI total Pretest 53.66 19.64 1.46 0.94 High 72.51 8.81 Medium 56.93 4.49 Low 30.80 13.40 Posttest 38.87 20.18 1.50 0.96 132.70 (**) High 52.36 12.90 Medium 39.48 17.54 Low 24.29 19.10 DMC Pretest 12.79 7.86 0.56 0.93 High 19.72 4.09 Medium 14.05 3.59 Low 4.32 4.53 Posttest 7.86 6.33 0.47 0.93 47.65 (**) High 11.43 5.11 Medium 8.48 5.81 Low 3.54 5.45 CA Pretest 15.58 5.22 0.39 0.83 High 19.34 3.40 Medium 16.43 2.60 Low 10.80 5.16 Posttest 12.20 5.70 0.42 0.88 45.34 (**) High 15.51 3.86 Medium 12.30 4.66 Low 8.69 6.25 EC Pretest 4.10 2.77 0.21 0.78 High 5.92 2.55 Medium 3.18 2.32 Low 2.17 2.08 Posttest 3.50 2.76 0.20 0.83 4.34 (*) High 4.90 2.58 Medium 3.18 2.47 Low 2.36 2.62 Note. CTI = Career Thoughts Inventory; DMC = Decision Making Confusion CA = Commitment Anxiety EC = External Conflict. (*)p < .05. (**)p < .001. |
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