5.0 Gender in the PRSP and its relationship to the National Budget in Uganda.5.1 A gender analysis of indicators for the key PEAP sectors. The Uganda Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), which also doubles as the country's PRSP, has 136 performance indicators that have been selected to monitor and evaluate achievements. This gender analysis shall focus on key indicators for those sectors that are both pertinent in addressing gender concerns and at the same time have been identified as the priority PRSP sectors namely: * Agriculture * Health * Education * Roads and Works * Water and Sanitation, and * Justice, Law and Order. 5.1.1 Agriculture Agriculture continues to provide a significant share of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 85 per cent of export earnings, 77 per cent of total employment (UBOS, 2005) and the bulk of raw materials used by the mainly agricultural-based industrial sector. At the sectoral level, men and women make differing contributions. In Uganda women contribute about 70 percent of the country's agricultural GDP, while men contribute about 50 percent to the GDP from services. Three key socio economic indicators are: * Growth rate of agricultural sector * Agriculture products marketed as a % of total agricultural production * % of households with land titles for agricultural production In terms of livelihoods, majority of Ugandans (68%) are subsistence farmers, while 15 percent are engaged in some employment income activities. The rest (16%) are engaged in either business enterprises (6%) or other activities. If we decompose the employment further, it is clear that in agricultural subsistence work, women are mainly producing crops (60% compared to 49% of men). There is limited occupation diversification by women, with 'sales' (stalls, small shops etc.) providing the only real diversification. The same trends manifested themselves in all regions of the country (see Annex Table U-1). The contribution to this agricultural growth and therefore the accrual of benefits; depends on the area of operation. As was noted, most women are subsistence farmers specialising in food crop production, while the men dominate the cash crops. A review of the recent growth trends (1999/00- 200 4/05, shows that livestock and cash crops have shown the most consistent positive GDP growth rates in the sector, while the food crops sub-sector has lagged behind (Table 5.1). A number of reasons may explain the consistently poor performance of the food crop sector that is dominated by women. Some of the plausible reasons are limited control over productive resources, particularly land, and credit; as well as limited access to agricultural extension services. These are briefly examined below. (a) Land Ownership Land assets are particularly, important for the majority of Ugandans, in income generation activities. Women's land rights are limited in Uganda both by the inequitable legal structure and by traditional practice. Data show that female-headed households have less land than male-headed households, even when corrected for household size, if the head is married, divorced or single (see Annex Tables U-2 and U-3). Women own only 7% of the registered land in Uganda. Gender inequality in ownership of land is a fundamental determinant of women's poverty and social disadvantage- it affects the stability of marriages and contributes to continuing high fertility rates. To ensure security of occupancy, the Land Act provides for spousal consent with respect to disposal of registered land on which the family depends for its livelihood. The effectiveness of this provision is diminished in two important respects. One is that, as indicated, land registration is not common. The second is that spousal consent is problematic in a context in which consent assumes equal rights of spouses and balanced power relations within marriage, which is largely non-existent in many households in Uganda. From the survey findings (1992-2003), women headed households (WHHs) consistently reported less cultivatable land among their assets. On Average they had 2.2 acres compared to 2.7 acres for male headed households in 1992, which reduced to 2.15 acres compared to 3.6 acres respectively in 2003. Comparing land ownership with contributions to agricultural production shows a clear reverse with the most "active "farmers--the women hardly own any land. This has implications for control over proceeds from agricultural produce, and therefore incentives for enhancing production levels. (b) Access to financial services Financial services are essential at all stages in order to optimise the rate at which efficient operations and adoption of appropriate technologies can take place. Unfortunately, the current financial products do not favour agriculture the main employer of women. The domestic credit to the entire agricultural sector stood at 10 percent in 2004. Most women accessing credit are in the services sector. However, only 20% of overall micro-finance activities are rural based. (C) Access to Agricultural Extension services Since 2001, the Government has been gradually implementing and expanding the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) programme to replace the unified extension system that had been in operation since the late 1980s. The NAADS programme is an innovative public-private agricultural extension service delivery approach. About 58% of these agricultural households indicated they had a need for extension services, but only a modest proportion of them reported receiving extension visits from any service provider during the preceding 12 months. Households headed by men were somewhat more likely to receive extension services than households headed by women (14.1% of male-headed households reported one or more extension visits during the pervious 12 months compared to only 11.4% of female-headed households. Among male- and female-headed households active in crop and livestock production respectively (and expressing a need for extension services), there was no difference in the proportion of households receiving crop or veterinary services (chart 5.1). On the other hand, households headed by persons with substantial (7) education were more successful in obtaining extension services (whether by paying for services, or asserting their needs by other means) than similar households headed by persons with only a few years of primary education or no education at all. [GRAPHIC 5.1 OMITTED] There were similar disparities among small and larger farms--with households cultivating more than 3 acres more than twice as likely to receive the crop extension services they "required" as households cultivating 1 acre or less. As was noted earlier women headed households had less land compared to their male counterparts. 5.1.2 Health A healthy and well-educated population is both a necessary condition for development and one of the central objectives of development. The overall development goal of the health sector as laid out in the National Health Policy (1999) is "the attainment of a good standard of health by all the people of Uganda, in order to promote a healthy and productive life". While good health is a prerequisite for a productive population and consequently a major input for poverty reduction, in Uganda, ill health has been reported as the most frequently cited cause and consequence of poverty in the 2001 Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Study (UPPAP) (Republic of Uganda, 2002). Therefore improving the population's health conditions and ensuring access to health care for all is an essential component of the overall government strategy of reducing poverty and promoting economic growth. The PEAP/PRSP (2004/5-2007/8) results and policy matrix identified key indicators to measure health sector performance and determine the contribution of the health sector to overall national health and broader outcomes. The key socio economic indictors are: * Infant mortality rate * Maternal mortality rate * Population undernourished * HIV/AIDS Prevalence rate * % of facilities without any stock outs of drugs * % of deliveries in health care centres * % met demand for family planning services * Utilization of outpatient services * % of children immunized The status of some of these indicators is given in the summary gender profile, Annex II. However, many did not have gender disaggregated data to allow for further analysis. This section therefore will carry out the gender analysis on existing data where feasible. (i) Need for and Use of Health services Females had somewhat higher incidences of sickness (and injury) than males. For all age groups combined the incidence was 13% higher among females. However the gender differences were negligible among children under age 13. Women of age 18-64 were sick 32% more often than men in the same age group. This pattern of differences in incidence of sickness between males and females was observed in both rural and urban areas. Rural residents in Central and Eastern regions reported much higher incidences of sickness than urban residents (while the rural-urban differences in Northern and Western regions were small); and in all areas females, and especially women of age 18 or older, had much higher incidences of sickness than males in the same age group. Similar patterns of higher incidences among females were observed when analyzing the data by household expenditure quintiles. Unfortunately, it is the same women that have limited control over household resources and therefore limited effective demand for the health services. While the incidences of sickness differed among males and females, in each region and nationwide the proportion of sick males and females who sought treatment from formal health facilities (government, private or NGO health centres or hospitals) were virtually the same. Nationwide, two-thirds of sick males and females (65% of sick males, 67% of sick females) sought treatment at such health facilities. The remaining third went to pharmacies or drug shops, treated themselves at home, went to traditional healers or sought no treatment. [GRAPHIC 5.2 OMITTED] Interestingly, if we analyse the changes in demand for all health care, since the abolition of user fees, relative to the income groups we find poor women have increased their demand more than poor men (chart 5.2).There was also a disproportionate increase in health care demand by wealthier men, relative to wealthy women. This could represent an increased awareness by men of health care services, an increase in men using private health care facilities, or simply mean that wealthier men have benefited more than wealthy women, from the abolition of user fees. The most frequent reason given for not using government health facility (as a first source of treatment) is the distance to the nearest facility, followed by unavailability of drugs. The quality of health services have grave gender implications as it is the women that suffer most incidences of sickness as well as injuries mainly because of their multiple roles within households. Key issue on quality is the availability of drugs since women have limited control over household incomes. Measures of satisfaction with specific services at government health facilities were reviewed for two most frequently used outpatient services particularly for "drugs" and "immunization" For outpatient services to obtain drugs there were pronounced differences among regions, with Northern region respondents significantly less satisfied than users in other regions. This may be explained by the fact that the proportion of facilities without stock outs of essential drugs was still very low at 35% (2004/05). For immunization services, the differences in satisfaction among regions were much less pronounced. Uganda still has poor health outcomes as evidenced by the high mortality rates (summary gender profile). A difference in decision-making power within the household is one of the factors contributing to poor health outcomes in Uganda, including the high levels of maternal and child mortality. The combination of heavy workload, resource dependency, and limited decision- making may also help to explain why for example, 44 percent of pregnant women delay their first visit to a health facility to the last trimester of their pregnancy. [GRAPHIC 5.3 OMITTED] (ii) HIV/AIDS Uganda has often been quoted as a success story in the fight against HIV/AIDS. From the early 1990's to 2002, the prevalence rate dropped significantly with estimates suggesting a decline from 18% to 6%. However there are stark gender disparities (chart 5.3). Given the decade of comprehensive AIDS awareness campaigns in Uganda it is perhaps reassuring that high proportion of women and men, in virtually all regions are aware of the methods by which HIV/AIDS is prevented. Only for women in the North is HIV/AIDS significantly lower than for men (94% versus 97% respectively. For boys and girls, AIDSawareness is relatively even throughout the regions, but might not be as high as expected. The fact that the prevalence is higher among women, therefore, is not necessarily because of lack of awareness on their part but a result of unequal gender relations within households. It is clear that the impact of HIV/AIDS differs markedly along gender lines, reflecting men's and women's different roles and responsibilities in household and market activities, and critical gender differences in access to and control of resources-this has implications for care, support, and treatment programs, and especially for addressing the needs of the 1.3 million AIDS orphans in Uganda. (iii) High Fertility Rates The well-established link between education and fertility is confirmed in Uganda. Women with no education have a TFR of 7.8, those with some primary education 7.3. Women with more than primary education have shown TFR dropping dramatically from above five in 1988 to 3.9 in 2000-a difference of nearly four children between women without education and those with secondary education. Uganda's total fertility rate (TFR) is 6.9, considerably higher than the SSA average of 5.2. [GRAPHIC 5.4 OMITTED] High fertility coupled with poverty, illiteracy, and the low status of women is key obstacles to safe motherhood. Maternal mortality is one of the most important causes of loss of healthy life years in Uganda, and places surviving children at great risk, as the death of the mother has been found in a variety of settings to be a important predictor of school dropout and child mortality. The majority of maternal deaths occur outside the hospitals, indicating that delay in seeking care and delay in reaching care are critical. Of the deaths that occur in the hospital, many of the women arrived at the hospital moribund. In one study, 86.1 percent of maternal deaths in 74 facilities occurred within an hour of arrival. Although in-patient management certainly needs to be improved, these data point more to lack of recognition of warning signs and lack of timely transport (World Bank 2004b). They also suggest, strongly, that women lack the resources and decision-making power over when and how to seek care, and that their "overburden" is a contributing factor in delaying efforts to seek care. Although both men and women believed that large families led to poverty, women reported not being able to use family planning because of a negative attitude by their husbands. Payment of bride price, domestic violence and illiteracy were all perceived to be important factors in perpetuating unequal gender relations. 5.1.3 Education Education is not only an important aspect and index for national development; it is also vital for achieving a good quality of life for the people. Education is one of the most effective means to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of girls and women since it offers the skills and knowledge to exploit economic opportunities and more meaningfully contribute to development. Government of Uganda has consistently focused on primary education since 1997 when Universal Primary education (UPE) was launched. In addition, recently Universal Secondary education has also been introduced. The education sector has performance indicators pertaining to access and quality. Key socio economic indicators are: * Net enrolment rate (primary and secondary) * Proficiency rate for primary education * Pupil-teacher ratio * Pupil-classroom ratio * Pupil- textbook ratio * Completion rates (primary and secondary) Primary Education Substantial progress has been achieved in equity in access to primary education between girls and boys. By March 8 2004, nationwide measures for school enrollment of boys and girls were almost the same for the age group 6-12, at 91%. This represents substantial progress compared to the situation in the early 1990s, when net primary school enrollment for the age group 6-12 was estimated at about 60%, with girls lagging almost 5 percentage points behind boys. Northern region was well behind other regions--with the enrollment rate for girls in the region and children of either sex in rural areas, about 9 percentage points below the national averages. Nationwide, urban children were about 4 percentage points ahead of rural children in the 6-12 age groups. School enrollment was closely correlated with economic status. Children from the poorest quintile nationwide had an enrollment ratio about 6 percentage points lower than children from the richest quintile. This difference was found within each of the regions, but with a far greater disparity between poor and rich children in the north. Only 77.4% of the children aged 6-12 from the poorest quintile in northern region were enrolled in schools. Despite the impressive enrolment figures in primary education, the dropout rates particularly for the girl children were worrying. For example only 42% of the girls that joined primary one in 2000 completed the seven years of schooling in 2006. The participatory consultations in 12 districts (9) ranked the main reasons hampering access to and full attendance of UPE. These included: * Financial costs (10) and barriers * Traditional social and cultural attitudes and practices * Hunger and poor nutrition barriers * Teacher-related and in-school barriers * Physical, geographical and seasonal barriers * Insecurity in some parts of the country * Wide spread unemployment, especially of university graduates The communities further classified the cultural reasons for dropping out of school by gender. For the girls the main reasons were ranked as early pregnancies, early marriages, or domestic chores; all of which are ender concerns. Like the consultations, the national household survey established that the main reason for dropping out was costs. This problem has intensified (11) for pupils, particularly the girls (see Annex Table U-6). This was followed by the problem of sickness and calamities at home, and pregnancy for girls; all of which are gender concerns. Under the school factors hindering girls' attendance, is one of provisioning of separate sanitation facilities. By 2006, only 72% of the schools were doing so. Secondary Education The school enrolment trends shown in the table below indicate that whereas total enrolment is increasing, the enrolment of girls is still lagging behind that of boys in the secondary sub sector. Significant disparities between the total number of girls and boys persist in secondary, vocational and tertiary education. There are 20-30 % more boys than girls in S.1-S.4 and 60% more boys than girls in S.5-S.6. At the tertiary level the situation is much worse, with enrolment rates at only about 3% overall while the enrolment rates for girls are even worse at about 1.5%, and no major changes have been witnessed over the years. In terms of benefit incidence of public resources, they have benefited the boys more than the girls. The same factors for low girls' access to education still hold at the higher levels. 5.1.4 Roads and Works The objective of the Government's Medium Term Transport Sector Policy is to promote efficient and effective transport services that facilitate the achievement of the PEAP outcomes and other priorities. The road infrastructure provides for over 90 percent of passenger and cargo traffic. Key socio economic indicator: * Roads in good condition (by category) Under this sector, the main concern is the construction and maintenance of community roads that are mainly used by the women. A notable problem was that community funds for road maintenance were limited and delayed transfers from government slowed down progress with road maintenance (PMA JAR Draft report 2005). The rehabilitation of community roads, for example, declined from an achievement of 55% during 2004/05 to 38% in 2005/06. Year-round usability of community roads varied between regions, with Northern and Western regions well below the national average of 64%. 5.1.5 Water and Sanitation Access to safe water and sanitation facilities, their management and utilization, are necessary conditions for sustainable development. Lack of safe water and poor sanitation and hygiene practices exact a disproportionately higher toll on the poorest segments of society in both rural and urban areas. Key socio economic indicators: * % of population using safe water (rural, urban) * % of population using safe sanitation facilities * % of rural water sources functional Provision of water for household use is a responsibility of women and children. Since majority of Ugandans are in rural areas, a review of the provision of safe rural water sources is done. The issue was increased funding to ensure adequate provision of water sources. During 2004 and 2005, the district rural grant for rural water supply was increased by 50%. Despite the increased funds for the sub-sector, in terms of achievement, the rural population being served by the district rural grant was declining. The main explanation was that of increasing per capita costs as the water sources being provided were mainly boreholes and less of springs and shallow wells. Nationwide, 60.2% of rural households used protected sources in the dry season (well above the current PEAP target of 55% for rural areas). Rural households in Central and Western households were well below the national average in the use of protected sources, and made more frequent use of unprotected sources, such as lake and river water and unprotected wells. It should also be noted that among rural households nationwide, the proportion using protected sources in both the wet and the dry season was only 51%. Access to protected sources of drinking water was closely correlated with economic status. In the poorest (12) quintile, use of protected sources was 8 percentage points below the national average of 69.4%, while in the richest quintile (largely urban households), the use was 10 percentage points above the national average. The inadequacy of water sources has implications for time spent collecting water. Major disparities were found in the time households reported spending on collecting water. Total time to collect water was calculated as the time households reported spending on transport to and from the water source, plus the waiting time at the water source. Average total collection time varied significantly among rural and urban areas, with the average rural households spending 60 minutes compared to 25 minutes for the average urban household. The burden of collecting water fell disproportionately on poorer households. Households in the poorest quintile (almost all rural households) reported an average water collection time of 70 minutes, more than twice the average water collection time reported by households in the richest quintile (30 minutes). This time use on water collection affects the overall work load for the women. Already women work between 12-18 hours per day with a mean of 15 hours, compared to an average male working day of approximately 8-10 hours (World Bank, 1993). There is inadequate sanitation as only 57 percent of households had latrines in 2005. This has implications for the health status of the population. Diarrhoea (13) was the third most important direct cause of infant mortality, only next to malaria and Acute Respiratory infections in that order. Again care giving for the sick is the responsibility of women and any ill health within the household increases the over burden of work. 5.1.6 Justice, Law and Order Lack of access to justice is a defining attribute of poverty and an impediment to poverty eradication. A well functioning justice system therefore is a precondition to spur economic growth. A people with effective access to justice are indeed empowered. Key social economic indicators: * Crime rate (incidents per 10,000) * Average length on remand * % of population confident in legal and justice system The number of reported crimes, excluding traffic offences, rose from 40,979 in 1996 to 68,322 in 2001. While men reportedly committed the great majority of all crimes in every category, there was a sharp increase in the numbers of women arrested or accused. Juvenile crime (especially economic crime) was on the increase, particularly among females. Two categories were of particular importance: defilement and economic crime. Defilement cases reported rose by 87.9% over the period of 5 years, contributing to a 95% increase in youth charged with capital crimes. Defilement was related to poverty, armed conflict, orphan hood and 'street children'. There are various strands of justice but this section shall focus on criminal justice in general and the issue of domestic violence in particular. A report by Human Rights Watch offers an extensive discussion of this issue and some insights into the implications for women, and for Ugandan society, of the combined effects of gender inequality, HIV, and violence (14). The report notes that in many communities wife battery that does not result in serious injury is tolerated and considered a normal part of marriage. Because domestic violence is under-reported, and official statistics are largely absent, domestic violence rates are difficult to measure with any accuracy. There is, however, general agreement that domestic violence rates are high in Uganda. The report cites UN data suggesting that more than 40 percent of Ugandan women have suffered domestic violence. A study of domestic violence among women attending the pre-natal clinic in Mulago hospital found that a similar percentage (40.7 percent) of women reported physical assaults in the year before conceiving. Human Rights Watch was informed that complaints of domestic violence rose from 495 in 2001 to 1,009 in 2002, an increase attributable in part to training on women's rights but also to increased levels of as a result of poverty (15). There is differentiated access to justice between men and women. For example, for gender based violence that remains a big issue today, reporting of cases differs. 33 percent of women victims took no action. In fact, many women (70%) had accepted domestic violence and could not report because the offenders were their partners. This is a sign of disempowerment. Domestic violence was a widespread problem, which the legal system did not always adequately address. Contributory factors included the limits on women's empowerment posed by bride price, limited ownership of assets, and lack of custody rights in the case of separation, discriminatory divorce rights, and widespread acceptance of the normality of the practice of domestic violence in society and even in some parts of the legal system. A survey in 2002 identified the most frequently mentioned human rights abuses as: domestic violence, sexual harassment, unlawful detention, and denial of education to girls, ritual killings and corruption. Access of women to justice is also problematic. Key gender-related barriers to access to justice were identified in an analysis of the Justice, Law and Order Sector (JLOS) as: (i) substantive law issues, relating to gender biased laws (notably concerning divorce, adultery, and defilement) and differences in evidentiary (burden-of-proof) requirements; (ii) administration of law issues, including, physical access, training and orientation of staff, and delays in delivery of justice; and (iii) barriers which exist in the community where disputes occur, notably the role of culture, religion, and patriarchy in community management, power imbalances in the household, and community dispute resolution for a which are not necessary gender inclusive or gender-responsive. Patriarchal values are at times upheld by legal practitioners and the institutions, generally giving more privilege to men and disadvantaging women in the process of dispensing justice; there is inability of the poor, especially women to pay court expenses and these challenges are compounded by women's higher rate of illiteracy, over-burdened women with triple roles, lack of experience in public speaking, legal technicalities and jargon, ignorance of their rights and difficulty in physical access to magistrate courts. Many poor people, especially women, still seek alternative means to justice such as the Local Council Courts, Uganda Human Rights Commission, Centre for Arbitration and Dispute Resolution (CADER) and Civil Society, such as FIDA-U, Uganda Law Society, Legal Aid Clinic and Public Defender's Association. 5.2 A Gender Analysis of the Macro-economic Framework The macro economic framework is premised on the need for a strong export-led growth that is driven by the private sector. This requires a number of supportive economic conditions namely: * A low and stable rate of inflation * A competitive exchange rate for exporters * Low and stable interest rates for the private sector * Steady growth in domestic savings * Steady growth in private sector investment These are the issues that government has been obsessed with, and they will be the focus of the gender analysis. 5.2.1 Control of Inflation Government has set an annual inflation target of 5 percent. To achieve this, money supply is the variable controlled based on the equation below:
M x V = P x Y
where:
M = money supply; V = velocity of money
(the rate at which
money circulates)
P = prices; Y = the real output
of the economy
Given that neither the real output of the economy (Y) nor the rate at which money circulates (V) can change rapidly in the short term, a rapid increase in money supply (M), which outstrips the real rate of growth of the economy, will lead to an increase in prices (P), generating inflation. This equation causes overdue restraint on the money supply in a bid to keep prices in check to avoid inflation. This is because the real output of the economy is underestimated as the statistics used understate women's contribution to the economy. There is unpaid care economy in which women do most of the work of maintaining the labour force and keeping the social fabric in good order, maintaining social cohesion, civic responsibility and good neighbourliness that is omitted from the national accounts. Women's work is excluded on the basis that most of it is considered not to be market oriented and thus cannot be captured in national accounts. Women's work may be divided into three categories: Subsistence production of goods for home use, which in principle could be marketed- such as food, clothing, pottery, housing etc. This to an extent is reflected in the national accounts. Unpaid care work that includes household chores such as looking after a household; cooking; cleaning; and providing personal care for family members, friends and neighbours. This work is excluded from the national accounts as work lying outside the production boundary. However, the care economy is vital for keeping the social fabric in good repair and for maintaining and reproducing the labour force- and is therefore part and parcel of the production systems. Voluntary community work that includes unpaid activities in all kinds of civic associations, both secular and church based. This networking is key to social capital accumulation, one of the assets that is critical for livelihoods. This undue limitation in money supply has constrained government expenditures to below optimum levels for effective service delivery for example. 5.2.2 Competitive Exchange Rate The competitive exchange rate is deemed desirable for fostering an export led growth. This is noble for healthy balance of payments. However from a gender perspective the question is whether the interventions benefit both men and women and if not what should be done. For the population engaged in production of tradables (products that may be exported) a competitive exchange rate would be desirable. Uganda is basically a primary goods exporter dealing in crops, livestock, minerals, a few manufactured goods and electric current. There has been growth in the export sector mainly due to the expansion of the non-traditional exports including both high value products of fish and horticulture; as well as low-value crops (16) of maize, beans, and bananas (chart 5.5). The transformation of some food crops into tradables as noted above should be of benefit to women. As was noted in section 5.1.1, it is women that are mainly engaged in food crop production. However, in the same section we noted a consistent decline in the production of these crops over the years bringing to the fore the question as to whether competitive exchange rates have really benefited the women. Some of these issues shall be explored when reviewing the impact of the macroeconomic framework on distribution and production. [GRAPHIC 5.5 OMITTED] 5.2.3 Low and stable interest rates for the Private sector Although government does not fix the interest rates, it has affected them through its interventions of containing the fiscal deficit. In a bid to manage the deficit, the Central Bank issues Government securities at an interest rate that is conducive to commercial banks to procure the same. In addition this rate should not lead to the crowding out of the private sector. Irrespective of all the hurdles, private sector credit has grown steadily over the past decade. The issue of concern is which sectors have access to this private sector credit (chart 5.6). Chart 5.6 shows that more than half of Commercial Bank lending is to Trade & Other Services. The next biggest sector is manufacturing, followed by Agriculture. Most of Commercial Banks' agricultural lending is for crop finance, rather than production. There are a number of reasons why Commercial Banks do not lend to producers. Firstly, the risks involved in agricultural production are high, as a crop may fail due to weather conditions or disease. Secondly, smallholder farmers tend to have insufficient collateral to set against their loan apart from their land, for which they may not hold a title. Thirdly, the cost to Commercial Banks of loan supervision for a large number of small loans is far greater than the cost of supervision for one or two large, well-collateralised loans. Fourthly, few farmers have pre-agreed production output contracts and therefore guaranteed markets. [GRAPHIC 5.6 OMITTED] As noted in section 5.1.1, majority of women are engaged in agriculture with limited diversification. Even within the agricultural sector, their roles are limited to sowing, weeding, harvesting and have limited participation in marketing. The provision of crop finance, therefore again excludes the women. It was also noted that women's major source of finance are the micro-financial institutions (MFIs). The Poverty Status Report 2005 noted that higher interest rates were observed in the MFIs whose source of loanable funds is from commercial banks. [GRAPHIC 5.7 OMITTED] 5.2.4 Impact of the Macroeconomic Framework on Sectors Almost all sectors complain of inadequate funds resulting from the budget ceilings aimed at controlling inflation. This is illustrated using a few sectors. Although there are efficiency gains that could be made within the sectoral expenditures, it has been shown that the overall budgetary requirements would still be inadequate. (a)Agriculture Government expenditure on agriculture has been generally low, averaging about 0.3 percent of GDP, and a sectoral share of 4% in the national budget. This low expenditure, is probably inadequate to enable Uganda achieve any impact. It was clear that the share of development expenditures in this sector were declining, implying declining production and productivity. As was noted in section 5.1.1, agriculture's sector GDP growth rates have been consistently declining for the last decade. This partly explains the country's inability to achieve the desired GDP growth rate of 7% per annum for sustained poverty reduction. This poor sectoral performance is partly responsible for the pervasive poverty in the rural parts of the country. (b)Health The level of funding required to provide the Uganda National Minimum Health care package is estimated to be US$ 28, but only US$10 are being provided, meaning that the sector is funded at les than 50% of requirements. This poor funding poses a serious threat in terms of the country's ability to achieve both the PEAP targets and MDG commitments. The sector has experienced poor health related performance indicators. For example maternal mortality has almost stagnated since 1995. Reproductive health care services including provision of emergency obstetric care (EmOC) requires substantial investments across the country. However recent studies had shown high unmet need for EmOC at 86%! This significantly contributes to the low utilization of maternity services by the pregnant women especially in poorly served areas. If this picture continues, there are very minimal chances that Uganda shall achieve the Maternal Mortality ratio targets in both the PEAP/PRSP and MDGs. Funding for the Essential drugs and health supplies is much les than required. This is a pertinent quality issue for the sector that will be explored further under impacts on communities. (c) Education Although this sector has been receiving a lions share of the national budget, averaging 24 percent, it still suffers inadequacy in funding. Primary education, for example has been taking about 60% of the education budget. However, this has only enabled the sector to expand access but of a very poor quality service. The pupil -teacher ratios; pupil-classroom ratios are still very high. Many schools are not providing school meals which have resulted in massive pupil drop outs. It has been estimated that the primary sub-sector, for example could achieve a 40% efficiency gain. However this could increase the achievement in the pupil-classroom ratio by 18% which would still be inadequate for attaining the PEAP target. (d)Water and Sanitation The inadequate investments in the sector have meant continued in access to safe water sources for many Ugandans. For example, new investments in rural water supplies have just kept abreast with population growth leaving the coverage rate stagnant. [GRAPHIC 5.8 OMITTED] 5.2.5 Impact of the Macroeconomic Framework on Communities The impact of the macroeconomic framework is reviewed in terms of economic infrastructure (roads) and support services (agricultural extension) as well as social infrastructure (health, education, and water). In addition a review is made of availability of markets (using availability of agricultural inputs (17) as proxy). It is clear from the sectoral analysis that public provision of these infrastructures was inadequate. At community level this is illustrated with beneficiary satisfaction with service delivery. (a) Economic Infrastructure Basing on the National Service Delivery Survey (NSDS-2004), there was a significant disparity between rural and urban areas regarding usability of roads and road maintenance. The measures are based on household ratings of the nearest road. While reported year-round usability for community roads in urban areas was 77.7%, the comparable measures for rural areas were about 13 percentage points lower. Similar gaps were observed in the reported changes in road maintenance in the two years before the survey. For community roads in rural areas, the measure of net improvement was only 4.5% (that is, reported improvements only slightly outnumbered declines) while urban areas had a net improvement of 20.7%. The poor state of roads and therefore limited accessibility has negatively affected women who have limited mobility away from homes. As noted in section 5.1.1, women were mainly producing crops with limited occupation diversification into 'sales' (stalls, small shops etc. at their residences) providing the only real diversification. The only positive attribute to roads for women though limited in scope, has been the promotion of labour-intensive maintenance practices. There was a deliberate policy to promote labour-based works in routine maintenance, construction and rehabilitation of roads and a deliberate effort to include women. This has mainly been done in Eastern Uganda where women took up the work. (b) Economic support services Modest proportions of households with needs for extension services that actually received some visits illustrate the substantial unsatisfied demand for advisory services (chart 5.7). Nationwide, of the households that indicated a need for crop extension services, only 15.4% reported receiving such services. Among the households with a need for veterinary extension services, only 19.7% reported receiving such services during the preceding 12 months. There were some regional differences, with agricultural households in Eastern and Western regions reporting fewer fulfillments of their needs than households in Central and Northern regions. (c) Health services Communities were suffering both poor access and low quality of health services. According to the National Service Delivery Survey of 2004, only one-half of the households reported being within 3 km of the nearest government health facility. This is a clear indication of the limited availability of these facilities within communities. Coupled with this poor access was the issue of quality of health services. Basing on the same survey less than 40% of the population rated the health services as good with regional variations although some improvements were being noted. Overall quality was noted to be good in Kampala and Western Uganda, and least in the north. [GRAPHIC 5.9 OMITTED] (d) Education As noted already, this sector too suffers poor quality service provision. Using availability of facilities as a measure of quality, just over one-third of the urban schools were deemed to have adequate classrooms, while the comparable proportion among rural schools was only one in four. Similarly, among urban schools, three out of five were reported to have some teachers' houses available, while teachers' houses were only available at one-half of the rural schools (chart 5.8). Less than 4% of the school officials felt their schools had adequate houses for teachers. [GRAPHIC 5.10 OMITTED] (e) Input Markets Using the availability of selected agricultural inputs, it is clear that communities still have unmet demand. Less than half of the population had access to either improved seeds or veterinary drugs. There were regional variations with the central region having better access while the north had the worst followed by the west. 5.2.6 Impact of the Macroeconomic Framework on Households The macroeconomic framework impacts on households through markets both factor and product; economic infrastructure and support services; as well as social infrastructure. As noted under the analysis of impact on communities, these channels have been inadequate. In terms of markets, for example, households have consistently been faced with poor terms of trade. This has been noted to be one of the main reasons for the declining agricultural production and productivity. This poor agricultural production is also reflected in the poor food security and nutrition. [GRAPHIC 5.11 OMITTED] In spite of the generally food-secure status of the population, there continues to be problems of malnutrition and pockets of famine and hunger in the country. The prevailing levels of childhood under- and mal-nutrition are high, accounting for 40 per cent of all deaths of children before the age of five. Over 32 per cent of children under 5 years of age are stunted (with the rural population being more affected than the urban), 5 percent wasted and 20 per cent underweight. All these indicators reflect either chronic or acute malnutrition. In addition, 10 per cent of women are undernourished, while micronutrient deficiencies (particularly Vitamin A) are common (UDHS, 2006; National Food & Nutrition Council, 2002). Causes of this include inadequate food intake, ignorance, poverty, taboos and the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS. In terms of poverty reduction, it is the farmers that constitute the majority of poor farmers (Table 5.3). This trend is forcing an undesirable situation where households are servicing their consumption expenditure (18) through loans, and or depletion of assets (land, livestock) to unviable levels. Asset depletion appears far more common in Women Headed Households than in Male Headed Households irrespective of location. Like markets, poor economic infrastructure and support services are compounding the problems of production and productivity within households. This is because the high costs of production diminish levels of competitiveness in the globalization process. Under social services, households have to make do with either privately provided service (where they can afford - see chart 5.9 illustrating the case of health) or carry the financial burden of using but complementing financing of services. A classic example in Uganda is the Universal Primary Education (UPE). Despite the fact that the country launched UPE, the parents are still faced with high financial burden, again leading to school drop outs. While tuition at government-operated primary schools has been free since the introduction of UPE in 1997, most government primary schools still charged the pupils' parents or guardians fees for other purposes, the most common being school uniforms, stationery and contributions to building or development funds. For most households, these payments were a quite modest proportion of the household's total expenditures for all types of consumption. Nationwide, households with children in government primary schools reported spending an average of 0.7% of their estimated annual consumption expenditures (19) on such payments to the government schools. In all regions except Northern region, urban households spent more for these purposes than rural households, both in absolute amounts and relative to their total consumption spending as well. The proportion of households spending 2% or more was 13.1% in rural areas and 21.6 % in urban areas. [GRAPHIC 5.12 OMITTED] In terms of distribution, income inequality has been on the rise because on the non pro-poor growth, coupled with failed public service delivery that could have redressed some of the imbalances (table 5.4). 5.3 Implications of the Gender Analysis on the Resource allocations within the national Budget. 5.3.1 Current resource Allocations The analysis has clearly shown deficit financing within the national budget particularly of the priority sectors. The figures below illustrate the undesirable state of affairs. Comparisons with other sectors are in Annex Table U-7. (a) Agriculture From the chart above 5.10, it is clear that agricultural spending is on the decline. Although, there are indications of increased funding for agricultural extension services, these are grossly inadequate as less than 15 percent of the farmers needing extension were being served. Since majority of farmers are actually women, reduced funding for sector is negatively impacting on their productivity. Increased funding in terms of development of appropriate technologies and provision of agricultural advisory services would greatly enhance the productivity (21) and production levels of women. (b) Roads Under the roads subsector, spending on road maintenance was stagnant between 2000 and 2004. On the other hand, the total expenditure on roads steadily increased from 2000 to 2002 but declined thereafter. As can be noted expenditures on maintenace showed no improvements. (c) Health Overall health sector consistently rose from 2000 till 2003 when it declined (chart 5.11). Although, expenditures on district primary health care increased throughout the period it is deemed inadequate to provide the national minimum health care package. (d) Water and Sanitation; and Education Education sector spending was on the increase since 2000, particularly on the district education activities that include the school facilities grant. However, the same trend was not observed for the water and sanitation sector that had stagnant expenditures over the period. 5.3.2 Gender analysis implications for resource allocations Agriculture To have some impact, agricultural expenditure should be at least 12% of GDP for Sub Saharan Africa. The current level of spending is approximately 0.3 % of GDP. This calls for drastic increases in expenditure that may be gradual which has two implications namely: 1. Including women's unpaid work into the national accounts resulting into a higher GDP that would allow for relaxation on the money supply. The sector expenditures could then be raised systematically without either causing inflation or constraining other public expenditures. 2. Continuing with the gender blind macroeconomic frame work where funds will only be raised at the cost of other public expenditures. As noted already increased funding for the agricultural sector would greatly benefit women who constitute majority of farmers. However the benefit cannot be quantified due to lack of gender disaggregated data. It must also be noted that increased agricultural funding by the state may not necessarily enhance production if the decision making powers on use of household incomes solely rest with the men. (b) Health To attain the Uganda National Minimum Health Care package, the current levels of funding on primary health care (PHC) have to almost be trebled. This would allow for movement from US$10 to US$ 28 per capita. The PHC budget accounts for 47% of the total health sector spending. This means again more than doubling the health sector budget as a minimum. This does not mean attaining this goal within a single budget year but it is the desirable target. It was clear that the poor are missing out on health services because of cost. By inference, majority of the poor are women and they lack control over household incomes. It means that adequate provision of public basic health services would be of great benefit to them. (c) Education Increased funding is required for both universal primary and secondary education. To illustrate the need, UPE is used (information was more readily available as this policy has been under implementation for some time now). Using the classroom requirements, even if efficiency gains are made in the sector, the expenditure must be doubled to attain the 40:1 classroom pupil ratio. The school facilities grant constitutes of 52.7% of the education budget. This means that doubling the expenditure on classroom construction alone entails increasing the education sector budget by more than 50%. If other critical expenses like school feeding are also introduced, one gets a sense of the magnitude of the desired level of funding. There was evidence of very high drop out rates due to cost particularly for the girls. This is a result of the patriarchal system that tends to favour boys over girls. Increased public funding for education would be very beneficial for the disadvantaged girls. There is proof that when government of Uganda introduced universal primary education, enrolment shot up and it was mainly the girls that benefited most as they too enrolled. (d)Water and Sanitation The sector spending has been increasing at an annual average (22) rate of 0.02 between 2000 and 2006 for example. This spending just kept abreast with the population growth and the proportion of the population accessing safe water stagnated. There is need to have a stable annual growth rate in the sector spending that far exceed 0.02. 5.4 Factors for women participation in the PRSP process The PRSP process is divided into two phases; the preparation process for the PRSP document and the implementation phase when the strategy is operationalized. 5.4.1 Preparation of the PRSP Document This entails conducting poverty diagnostics; setting targets for selected intermediate outcome indicators; prioritizing public policies to reduce poverty; and determining the monitoring and evaluation system. To enhance women's participation at this stage calls for the following deliberate steps: 1. Availability of adequate research findings to inform the design process. The research studies should clearly illustrate what the gender issues that the PRSP should be addressing are. Efforts should be put in exploring the use of national data sets that are available by carrying out gender analyses of the statistics. 2. Knowledge of the subject matter for example the macroeconomic framework. It is important to "speak the language" of the stakeholders that one is trying to influence. This has been one of the reasons why the macroeconomic frameworks are gender blind. This would entail the use of Technical Expertise to guide the process. 3. Effective Coordination. Agree on a Coordinating Institution(s) for the process. In Uganda this was a shared responsibility between the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development and the National Machinery- the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development. 4. Use of Champions where breaking through is an uphill task. Solicit support of "difficult" teams especially the macroeconomists. In Uganda a workshop was organized to raise gender issues and impose among these economists the need for gender mainstreaming. Champions were identified within this group to foster the process within the design of the macroeconomic framework. 5. Having a Critical Mass of Gender Advocates. Establish a core team of gender advocates to interact with different institutions and groups engaged in the PRSP design. Uganda government for example established a PEAP Gender Team (PGT) under the leadership of the coordinating institutions noted above. The Team had members from government institutions, Non-Governmental organizations and development partners. Dialogue meetings were held on how to strategize gender mainstreaming in the PEAP, as well as sharing information on developments in the PRSP process aimed at effective interactions with other stakeholders. These meetings also helped members move out with the same messages; and build confidence in gender advocacy. 6. Availability of Tools to guide the gender advocates. Develop some guiding tools to be applied by the gender advocates. In Uganda, Guidelines for Gender mainstreaming were developed and these had a National Summary Gender Profile with handy statistical data. The guidelines answered the key guiding questions for gender mainstreaming in the PEAP. These were four questions: * What are the key gender issues in each of the PEAP pillars? ( Identification of achievements, challenges and gender gaps) * Why and how is the identified gender concern a hindrance to the enjoyment of human rights and sustainable development? * How can the mentioned gender issue be addressed to benefit women, men, girls and boys? * What indicators can be used to monitor and evaluate the implantation of actions to address gender inequalities? 7. Prioritization and Commitment to a few high impact areas. Members of the PGT were assigned to selected priority sector working groups to ensure that gender issues were advocated for during the process. This was officially communicated to the management of the different sector working groups so that they are kept posted on all proposed activities. 5.4.2 Implementation of the PRSP During the implementation stage the factors to foster effective women's participation are mainly related to budgeting, and monitoring and evaluation. (a) Participating in the budgeting processes Factors for women's participation include: * Political Commitment of the government institutions to gender budgeting. This is critical because if it is not an accepted notion, the gender advocates will find it very difficult to participate in any budgeting processes. * Knowledge of the budgeting process that is influenced by the degree of openness of the national budgeting process. In Uganda the process is relatively open but women have to know what the process is. This is critical for identifying entry points as each stage may address different issues. The timeframe has to be communicated to the gender advocates early enough to give them ample time to prepare. * Availability of gender disaggregated information related to the budget. Effective participation in the budgeting process requires that the gender advocates have had analytical work done aimed at identifying the gender gaps. The question in budgeting processes will be "what is the problem with the current budgetary allocations and why is it an issue? Who is not benefiting and what should be done? * Availability of Tools to guide the gender advocates and other stakeholders. Gender budgeting is complex and requires continued skills development even among the gender advocates. In Uganda, the PGT had Gender and Equity Manuals developed for both the Facilitators and Users (sector working groups). * Capacity in identifying gender issues to be addressed by the budget, as well as identification of appropriate budgetary interventions. Many gender advocates may know how to identify the gender issues but may not be in position of identifying budgetary interventions that are feasible for the various sectors. In Uganda various training sessions have been held for both the gender advocates and members of the sector working groups. (b) Participating in Monitoring and Evaluation * Availability of gender performance indicators to assess achievements. These are critical as their absence renders the whole exercise redundant. * Availability of gender disaggregated data to facilitate the monitoring and evaluation work. * Knowledge of the key monitoring and evaluation events. This is important for sharing information and influencing future trends. 5.4.3 Results of women's participation in gender main streaming into the PRSP process in Uganda Gender advocates in Uganda played a key role in the PEAP/PRSP process at the three stages noted above. As a result the current PEAP/PRSP (23) (2004-2008) has been rated as the most gender responsive since time in memorial. (a) Issues noted in the PEAP/PRSP report Key among the issues flagged in the PEAP/PRSP (2004-08) were the following: * The high population growth rate resulting from high fertility rates, and the stress this was putting on provision of public services (both economic and social). * Issues of unequal control over productive resources and therefore decision making powers and how this was hampering optimal production and therefore economic growth. A major area of concern was the enhancement and protection of land rights particularly for the women that constitute the majority of farmers. * The need to develop energy sources especially those appropriate and affordable in rural areas to protect the environment as well as reduce women's drudgery in collecting firewood. * Access to justice for the women in general and in particular for those experiencing domestic violence an issue that was prevalent but inadequately addressed by the judicial system. * The equitable development of human resources of both men and women to ensure its optimal use and productivity. It was noted that having a gender responsive PEAP/PRSP document is not an end in itself. The PEAP Gender Team kept the pressure on government to ensure that gender mainstreaming moves from being rhetoric to realism through actual implementation. This was through three approaches namely: 1. Advocating for institutionalization of gender and equity budgeting within government, 2. Ensuring inclusion of gender undertakings into the Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) (24) actions that are used as performance measures to trigger funding from donors, and 3. Including gender performance indicators in the PEAP monitoring matrix. (b) Institutionalizing Gender and Equity Budgeting The Gender and Equity Budgeting Initiative is being spearheaded by the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development in collaboration with the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development. As a first step during financial year 2003, the Ministry of Finance attached ender and Equity Budgeting Guidelines as part of the Budget Call Circular. This initiative entails having adequate capacity within the SWGs to identify gender and equity issues and effectively prioritizes them for inclusion in the budgets. To this effect, government has prioritized six (25) sectors for initial capacity building (health; education; agriculture; justice, law and order; water and sanitation; and roads and works). In addition there is need to have comprehensive GDD data at all levels of government. (c) Gender undertakings (26) in the PRSC During 2003 the following were undertakings to enhance gender-mainstreaming efforts. Institutionalize gender and equity budgeting in government at all levels. Undertake research on gender and trade linkages in Uganda and use results for policy inferences. Intensify campaigns on land rights to enhance awareness especially among the women. Address the specific needs of child mothers and issues of sexual and gender based violence in the conflict-afflicted areas of the north. Increase access to justice by women as well as ensure more gender responsive legislation. Two Bills were to be passed by Parliament namely the Domestic Relations Bill that was addressing key issues of control over resources; and the Sexual Offences Bill. Review the National Gender Policy in light of the many developments, and ensure effective implementation. Cabinet to approve the Equal Opportunities Policy, and Parliament to enact the Equal Opportunities Act. Ensure increased access and retention of girls in school Reduce maternal mortality rate, infant mortality rate and fertility rate. Increase women's access to safe water by bringing water sources closer to the homes. (d) Gender responsive performance indicators in the PEAP monitoring matrix Among the PEAP indicators, gender responsive ones include: Distance traveled to fetch firewood. Number of clients served by Micro-finance institutions by sex. Net enrollment into primary education by sex. Primary completion by sex. Enrolment into post-primary education by sex. Completion of post primary education by sex. Infant mortality rate. Maternal mortality rate. Proportion of deliveries in health care centers. Percentage of population accessing safe water. 5.4.4 Achievements of gender mainstreaming efforts These interventions resulted in some visible gender mainstreaming processes and results in some sectors notably: (i)Health To enhance effectiveness of actions to reduce maternal and infant mortality rates, the structure for General Hospitals has been agreed with Ministry of Public Service to include four positions of Obstetrician/Gynaecologist, Pediatrician, Physician and Surgeon. There have been improvements in expenditure on medicines to reduce drug stock-outs. Preliminary results show improvements in deliveries in health facilities already. (ii) Education UPE practically removed inequalities in enrolment, although the system is still plagued with high drop-outs especially for the girls. There are incentives to schools to ensure retention of the girl child. Universal post primary training was introduced in 2007 aimed at ensuring equal access among boys and girls. (iii) Agriculture There have been efforts geared towards mainstreaming gender into the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture (PMA). Agricultural research and technology developed some technologies with women in mind. However, there are still critical issues for low adoption of technology by farmers including high cost of technology, attitudes, and low levels of dissemination that mainly impinge on women who have limited mobility and control over incomes. The National Agricultural Advisory services that assist farmers through support to selected enterprises included a food crop (27) enterprise for support. 5.5 Recommendations for better engagement of women with macro-economic policies and the PRSP The recommendations are in line with the weakness or desirable factors noted in sections 5.4.1 and 5.4.2. (a) Engagement with macroeconomic policies * Train women in the subject matter of macroeconomics * Provide gender disaggregated data relevant for analytical work. * Provide Technical Expertise to assist women develop capacity 4. Develop some tools to guide them in the policy work (b) Engagement with the PRSP Process * Conduct scientific research and studies to inform the process * Provide technical expertise to guide the women through the process * Ensure effective institutional coordination * Create a critical mass of gender advocates that are committed * Train women in advocacy skills and the use of champions * Support the formulation of Tools to guide the gender advocates * Provide gender-disaggregated data relevant for analytical work. * Assist women know the timeframe for critical activities within the PRSP processes. This could be done through effective networks. * Share experiences of best practices from else where. A community of learning group could be initiated. References African Development Bank, UNDP, World Bank (1989): "Structural Adjustment and Poverty: A conceptual, Empirical and Policy Framework" Executive Summary. World Bank AFRODAD (2006):" Course on International Financial Institutions: Macro-economic issues" Literacy training Manual Blackden Mark C. (2004): 'Out of Control: Gender and Poverty in Uganda" Deininger, Klaus (2001), "Household Level Determinants of Change in Welfare and Poverty: The Case of Uganda 1992-2000", World Bank, January. Deininger Klaus, and John Okidi (2002), "Growth and Poverty Reduction in 2000: Panel Data Evidence", World Bank, Washington D.C. and Economic Policy Research Council, Kampala, Uganda. Economic Policy Research Centre (2005): "Public sector growth and social development in Uganda: Getting: the balance right". Final draft- Mimeo Goetz, A. S. Maxwell and H Manyire (1994), "SPA Poverty and Social Policy Working Group Consultancy on Poverty Assessment and Public Expenditure Issues: Uganda County," Mimeo (Sussex: Institute of Development Studies). Hutchinson, Paul (2001), "Combating Illness", in Ritva Reinikka and Paul Collier (eds.) Uganda's Recover Uganda's Recovery--The Role of Farms, Firms and Government, World Bank: Washington D.C. Kakande Margaret (2004): "Reducing gender inequalities through public expenditure. An experience from the education sector in Uganda" Mimeo --(2007): "An assessment of Uganda's implementation of gender commitments stated in the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (2004/05-2007/08)", Final Report prepared for CEEWA-Uganda. Knud-Erik Rosenkrantz (2006): "Equity in Access to Public Services in Uganda: Highlights of Findings from the 2004 National Service Delivery Survey" Mimeo Lawson, David (2003), Uganda--A Microeconometric Analysis of Health Health Care and Chronic Poverty Unpublished PhD Thesis, The University of Nottingham. -- (2003): "Gender Analysis of the Ugandan National Household Surveys 1992-2003" Mimeo Lawson, David, Andy McKay and John Okidi (2003), "Factors Affecting Poverty Dynamics and Persistence in Uganda," Paper Presented at Chronic Poverty Research Centre International Conference, Manchester, April 2003. Muwanga-Zake E. (2005): "Promoting and Monitoring-the MDGs in African Countries: Evidence from Uganda" Prepared for The Institute of Statistical and Economic Research (ISSER), University of Ghana/NEPAD Study of Progress on Millennium Development Goals. Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (2006): "Gender Inequality in Uganda: The status, causes and Effects: Discussion Paper 11 "Published by St. Christian Graphics-Kampala --(2007): "Public Service Delivery in Uganda: Abetting or containing inequality?" Discussion Paper 13 Published by St. Christian Graphics- Kampala --(2007): "Guide to Macro Macronomic Management in Uganda" mimeo --(2004): Background to the Budget for financial year 2004/05 * Promoting Economic growth and Reducing poverty through public expenditure" Nordic Consulting Group (2004)" Strengthening Linkages between Poverty and Gender Analysis in Uganda". mimeo Republic of Uganda (2001a), Uganda Demorgraphic and Health Survey, Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala and ORC Macro, Calverton, Maryland, USA. --(2006): Uganda Demographic and Health survey, 2006" Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala and ORC Macro, Calverton, Maryland, USA. --(2001b), Ugandanda National Household Survey 1999/2000 Report on The Socio Economic Survey, Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala --(2001c), Uganda National Household Survey 1999/2000: Report on The Community Survey, Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala --(2002), "Uganda Participatory Property Assessment Report: National Report", Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala. --(2006): Uganda Poverty Status Report 2005" Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala. Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2006): "2006 Statistical Abstract"; and Uganda National Household on the Socio-economic Module. UNICEF/ACFODE (1988), "Uganda-Women's Needs Assessment Survey", Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala. World Bank (2005): Uganda, From Periphery to Center: A strategic Country Gender Assessment. (7) It will be noted that men have higher levels of education in Uganda (8) Time when the National Service Delivery Survey was conducted (9) Districts selected purposively from the 56, for deepening the understanding of poverty in 2002. (10) Although tuition fees were abolished, parents have to meet other related costs of uniforms, exercise books, transportation, lunch, and boarding fees where relevant. (11) Between 1999 and 2003, the proportion of pupils dropping out because of costs increased by 13 percent. However, for the girls, the increase was 27 percent as compared to 7 percent for the boys. This is because Uganda is a patriarchy society and families have a preference for boys. (12) The poorest quintile in Uganda also constitutes those that are chronically poor. These have been found to be mainly women especially the asset less widows; those with disabilities; and the elderly. (13) It is known that diarrhoea is mainly a result of poor sanitation and hygiene (14) See: Just Die Quietly: Domestic Violence and Women's Vulnerability to HIV in Uganda, Human Rights Watch, August 2003. This report, and others, accessible at: www.hrw.org. (15) Human Rights Watch, 2003a, p. 17. (16) These crops now double as cash and food crops (17) The only available information from the National service delivery survey, 2004 (18) This is the proxy for income that is used to calculate poverty trends (19) Estimated annual consumption included the market value of food and other products produced by the household. (20) A Gini coefficient is a measure of inequality that ranges from 0-1. The closer it gets to 1, the higher the degree of inequality. (21) The level of enhancement in terms of quality and quantity cannot be ascertained now due to lack of gender disaggregated data in this area for inference. (22) The rates fluctuated from 5.2% in 2000/01, 3.8% in 2001/02; 8.1% in 2002/03; 6.9% in 2003/04; 3.3% in 2004/05 to 3% in 2005/06. (23) Uganda first formulated a PEAP/PRSP in 1997 and this has been revised twice, initially in 2000 and then in 2004 that culminated into the current document. (24) The PRSC is the funding mechanism for the PEAP/PRSR The funds are mainly from the World Bank and bilateral donors. (25) The choice of the six was premised on the contribution that the sectors make to addressing gender and equity issues. (26) These are agreed on undertakings that government has to fulfill as triggers for funding (27) Food security in households is the responsibility of women
Table 5.1 Agricultural sub-sectors' GDP growth rate,
1999/00 to 2004/05 (%, in real terms)
1999/00 2000/01 2001/02
Cash crops 7.0 -4.9 7.4
Food crops 6.1 6.2 3.2
Livestock 3.9 4.4 5.0
Total 5.9 4.6 3.9
2002/03 2003/04 2004/05
Cash crops 4.6 0.3 4.8
Food crops 1.2 1.5 0.7
Livestock 4.6 1.1 5.3
Total 2.3 0.8 1.5
Source: Background to the Budget--financial year 2002/03,
MFPED, June 2003; Key Economic Indicators, 4th quarter 2001/02,
Uganda Bureau of Statistics, July 2002; 55th Key Economic
Indicators, 1st quarter 2004/05, Uganda Bureau of Statistics,
December 2004; Key Economic Indicators, 4th quarter 2004/05,
Uganda Bureau of Statistics, August, 2005.
Table 5.2 Enrolment patterns of secondary students in all schools
(2000 to 2005)
Ownership Gender 2000 2001 2002
Government Male 126,642 152,741 179,753
Female 89,650 108,923 138,053
Total 216,292 261,664 317,806
Private Male 163,534 149,073 179,741
Female 139,105 129,049 158,404
Total 302,639 278,122 338,145
Grand Totals Male 290,176 301,814 359,494
Female 228,755 237,972 296,457
Total 518,931 539,786 655,951
Ownership Gender 2003 2004 2005
Government Male 191,718 211,244 168,303
Female 144,644 159,563 124,221
Total 336,362 370,807 292,524
Private Male 182,941 166,954 113,536
Female 164,306 150,160 96,481
Total 347,247 317,114 210,017
Grand Totals Male 374,659 383,652 281,839
Female 308,950 313,855 220,702
Total 683,609 697,507 502,541
Source: EMIS, 2005
Table 5.3 Poverty by sector of household head, 2005/06
Sector Population % living in Contribution
share (%) poverty to poverty
Crop Agriculture 53.1 36.8 62.9
Non-crop agriculture 4.9 28.1 4.5
Construction and mining 2.0 27.1 1.7
Manufacturing 4.7 21.8 3.3
Trade 9.1 14.9 4.3
Transport and Communication 2.5 16.7 1.3
Public Services 5.0 8.5 1.4
Other services 3.7 17.9 2.1
Inactive 5.8 37.2 6.9
Off-temporarily 9.2 139.0 11.6
Source: UNHS, 2005/06
Table 5.4 Gini (20) Coefficients for Uganda
Residence 1992/93 2002/03 2005/06
Rural/Urban
Rural 0.396 0.483 0.432
Urban 0.328 0.363 0.363
Region
Central 0.395 0.46 0.417
Eastern 0.327 0.365 0.354
Northern 0.345 0.35 0.331
Western 0.319 0.359 0.342
National 0.365 0.428 0.408
Source: UNHS 2005/06
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