The effect of parental work history and public assistance use on the transition to adulthood.Though available data suggest a relationship between poverty and emerging adulthood Emerging adulthood is a phase of the life span between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, proposed by Jeffrey Arnett in a 2000 article in the American Psychologist (summary of article). The concept of Emerging Adulthood is closely related to the idea of a "Twixter. , fewer studies have been conducted to assess whether parental work or public assistance mediates these outcomes. Using the National Survey of Families and Households, this study examines the effect of work-reliant versus welfare-reliant households on youth outcomes (i.e., welfare use, education, idleness IDLENESS. The refusal or neglect to engage in any lawful employment, in order to gain a livelihood. 2. The vagrant act of 17 G. II. c. 5, which, with some modifications, has been adopted, in perhaps most of the states, describes idle persons to be those who, , and income) during the transition to adulthood. Examining parents from Wave 1 and older youth from Wave 2, researchers linked childhood poverty, parents' work history, family income from work, years on public assistance, and family income from public assistance with youth outcomes. Consistent with previous research, links exist between poverty in childhood and transition outcomes; however, these outcomes are not mediated me·di·ate v. me·di·at·ed, me·di·at·ing, me·di·ates v.tr. 1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: by parental work history or extent of welfare reliance during childhood. Multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model. analyses indicate that growing up in a heavily work-oriented environment or a heavily welfare-reliant environment made little difference in the youth's ability to successfully transition to adulthood. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for welfare policy. Keywords: poverty, welfare, adolescent ad·o·les·cent adj. Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence. n. A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. transitions ********** There is substantial evidence that growing up in poverty challenges children's optimal development. Children who grow up in low-income low-in·come adj. Of or relating to individuals or households supported by an income that is below average. families are often in poorer health, less prepared academically, and have less successful transitions to adulthood than their more advantaged peers (Duncan Duncan, city (1990 pop. 21,732), seat of Stephens co., SW Okla., in an oil, farm, and cattle area; inc. 1892. There is an oil industry, and electronics, concrete, and apparel are manufactured. During the late 19th cent. & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the Census Bureau Noun 1. Census Bureau - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United States Bureau of the Census (2004), for the third year in a row the US poverty rate grew, from 12.1% in 2002 to 12.5% in 2003, moving an additional 1.3 million people into poverty. Considerable research has assessed the impact of public provisions (e.g., cash aid, Medicaid Medicaid, national health insurance program in the United States for low-income persons; established in 1965 with passage of the Social Security Amendments and now run by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. , and food stamps food stamp n. A stamp or coupon, issued by the government to persons with low incomes, that can be redeemed for food at stores. Noun 1. ) on these families (e.g. Moffit, Cherlin, Burton, King, & Roff, 2002; Vandivere, Moore Moore, city (1990 pop. 40,761), Cleveland co., central Okla., a suburb of Oklahoma City; inc. 1887. Its manufactures include lightning- and surge-protection equipment, packaging for foods, and auto parts. , & Brown, 2000). Further, with current welfare policies promoting work, the body of literature related to program efficacy continues to grow. Nevertheless, relatively little is known about the differential effects of work-reliant versus welfare-reliant environments on the outcomes of low-income children. This study aims to fill that gap by examining the effect household environment during childhood (i.e., work-reliant or welfare-reliant) has on adolescent transitions to adulthood. Areas of interest include future public assistance use, educational attainment Educational attainment is a term commonly used by statisticans to refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed.[1] The US Census Bureau Glossary defines educational attainment as "the highest level of education completed in terms of the , income and idleness (i.e., neither working, in the military, or in school). The central question explored in this study concerns the extent to which these markers of successful transitions to adulthood are shaped by the family's source of income, as well as the adolescent's gender, ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic , parental education, and family structure. We expect that the environment poor parents provide for their families, either work-reliant or welfare-reliant, will lead to different outcomes in their children's transitions to adulthood. Poverty, both directly, through poor nutrition, dangerous neighborhoods, and inadequate housing, and indirectly, through parenting styles Parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies parents use in raising their children. One of the best known theories of parenting style was developed by Diana Baumrind. , can negatively affect children's life chances. Poor children are more likely to have behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. and emotional problems, be in fair or poor health, have problems in school, such as increased risk of grade repetition REPETITION, construction of wills. A repetition takes place when the same testator, by the same testamentary instrument, gives to the same legatee legacies of equal amount and of the same kind; in such case the latter is considered a repetition of the former, and the legatee is entitled and high school dropout (1) On magnetic media, a bit that has lost its strength due to a surface defect or recording malfunction. If the bit is in an audio or video file, it might be detected by the error correction circuitry and either corrected or not, but if not, it is often not noticed by the human , lower college attendance and fewer total years of education, and live in poor neighborhoods and unhealthy home environments, characterized char·ac·ter·ize tr.v. character·ized, character·iz·ing, character·iz·es 1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless. 2. by exposure to crime and toxins (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Sherman, 1997; Vandivere, et al., 2000). Low-income parents are more likely to be in poor health, both emotionally and physically (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; McLoyd & Wilson, 1990). Parent irritability irritability /ir·ri·ta·bil·i·ty/ (ir?i-tah-bil´i-te) the quality of being irritable. myotatic irritability the ability of a muscle to contract in response to stretching. and depression are associated with more conflictual interactions with adolescents, leading to less satisfactory emotional, social, and cognitive development (Flanagan, 1990; Lutenbacher & Hall, 1998). Children of depressed mothers typically receive less attention, stimulation, and interaction than children of non-depressed mothers. Parental education, number of siblings siblings npl (formal) → frères et sœurs mpl (de mêmes parents) , and the presence or absence of two parents is also related to the quality of parent/child interactions and quantity of parent time (i.e., parents with less education are less equipped to stimulate their children's development) (Smith, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1997), and parents with more children have less time to spend with each child (McLanahan, 1997). Research suggests that the timing and duration of poverty during childhood is also a factor. Long-term Long-term Three or more years. In the context of accounting, more than 1 year. long-term 1. Of or relating to a gain or loss in the value of a security that has been held over a specific length of time. Compare short-term. poverty produces greater cognitive problems than short-term Short-term Any investments with a maturity of one year or less. short-term 1. Of or relating to a gain or loss on the value of an asset that has been held less than a specified period of time. poverty (Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1994), and being poor in the first four years of life is associated with greater deficits than not being poor in those years (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). While being poor in early childhood has detrimental det·ri·men·tal adj. Causing damage or harm; injurious. det  ri·men consequences
during those years, individuals with the fewest resources also have the
most difficult time achieving success during emerging adulthood
(Besharov, 1999; Duncan, et al., 1994). Between the ages of 16 and 24,
youth must negotiate important developmental tasks: finishing school fin·ish·ing schooln. A private girls' school that stresses training in cultural subjects and social activities. finishing school Noun , leaving the home of origin, securing employment and self-sufficiency, and marriage (Shanahan, 2000). Successful transitions involve positive outcomes in the majority of these areas. Furthermore, adolescents must achieve these outcomes while simultaneously avoiding criminality, substance abuse, health and mental health difficulties, and economic challenges, such as unemployment and job instability instability /in·sta·bil·i·ty/ (-stah-bil´i-te) lack of steadiness or stability. detrusor instability . African-American and Latino youth consistently show disproportionate dis·pro·por·tion·ate adj. Out of proportion, as in size, shape, or amount. dis pro·por rates of unemployment, higher rates of idleness, and
other transition challenges (Brown & Emig, 1999; Powers, 1996).
Coming from communities with high rates of unemployment (Census Bureau,
2002b), welfare receipt (National Integrated Control System, 1993),
single parenthood (Sugarman, 1998), and low educational attainment
(Census Bureau, 2002a), these youth face increased barriers to success.
Poor and minority youth are the highest risk group for teenage
childbearing child·bear·ingn. Pregnancy and parturition. child  bearing adj. (America's children, 2001), are overrepresented o·ver·rep·re·sent·ed adj. Represented in excessive or disproportionately large numbers: "Some groups, and most notably some races, may be overrepresented and others may be underrepresented" in crime (FBI, 2001), have higher unemployment rates (Bureau of Labor Statistics Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) A research agency of the U.S. Department of Labor; it compiles statistics on hours of work, average hourly earnings, employment and unemployment, consumer prices and many other variables. , 2002) and have higher rates of idleness than White youth (Powers, 1996). Research demonstrates that family background, particularly poverty, affects educational and employment outcomes for youth (Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1994). Additionally, poverty limits the ability of parents to invest in their children, both in terms of economic and social capital (Becker, 1991). Low parental education, poverty, and family welfare receipt have all been associated with high rates of "disconnectedness dis·con·nect·ed adj. 1. Not connected; separate or detached. 2. Marked by unrelated parts; incoherent: described the accident in a disconnected way. " (i.e. experiencing periods of six or more months without being in school, having a job, or being married) among emerging adults (Besharov, 1999). This form of "disconnection dis·con·nect v. dis·con·nect·ed, dis·con·nect·ing, dis·con·nects v.tr. 1. To sever or interrupt the connection of or between: disconnected the hose. 2. " is experienced by approximately 25% of youth whose parents do not have a high school diploma A high school diploma is a diploma awarded for the completion of high school. In the United States and Canada, it is considered the minimum education required for government jobs and higher education. An equivalent is the GED. , 30% of youth living below the federal poverty line, and more than one-third of youth from families receiving welfare (Brown & Emig, 1999). Research is accumulating on the influence of welfare-reliant environments and work-reliant environments on child outcomes. However, much of the research looks at 1) the transition from welfare to work, a body of research that has increased substantially since the passage of welfare reform in 1996 (e.g., Chase-Lansdale, Moffit, Lohman, Cherlin, Coley coley Noun Brit an edible fish with white or grey flesh [perhaps from coalfish] , Pittman, Roff, & Votruba-Drzal, 2003; Tout Tout To promote a security in order to attract buyers. tout To foster interest in a particular company or security. For example, a broker might tout a security to a client in the hope that the client will purchase the security. , Scarpa Scar·pa , Antonio 1752-1832. Italian anatomist and surgeon known for his studies of the ear and nerves and for his description of atherosclerosis. , & Zaslow, 2002); 2) child outcomes that do not encompass emerging adulthood (e.g., Duncan, Dunifon, Doran, & Yeung, 2001) or 3) samples that do not directly compare the two groups (e.g., Orthner & Randolph, 1999). In Orthner and Randolph's (1999) low-income sample the highest high school dropout rates (61.7%) were found for adolescents whose parents remained on welfare throughout the entire study, while the lowest dropout rates (48.5%) were found for adolescents whose parents stopped receiving welfare. They also found that the risk for dropout was 25% greater if families received welfare benefits in more months, while dropout was 17% less for youths whose parents worked in more quarters. Yet, the authors point out that even the lower dropout rates for youths whose families have worked are considerably higher than dropout rates for middle-class youth. Similarly, Chase-Lansdale and colleagues (2003) looked at the effect of work/welfare cycling for young children and adolescents. They found that mothers' gaining employment and leaving welfare were not related to negative outcomes for either group. There were even some tentative tentative, adj not final or definite, such as an experimental or clinical finding that has not been validated. positive findings: having a mother working led to improvements in teens' mental health, reduced drug and alcohol use, and improved cognitive achievement, while leaving work was related to increases in teens' depressive de·pres·sive adj. 1. Tending to depress or lower. 2. Depressing; gloomy. 3. Of or relating to psychological depression. n. A person suffering from psychological depression. and aggressive behaviors. However, outcomes were only assessed at 16 months after these changes occurred. Though not focusing on outcomes related to emerging adulthood, Tout, Scarpa, and Zaslow (2002) looked at welfare leavers, welfare stayers, and poor families who did not receive welfare within the prior two years. Tout and colleagues found that children of current recipients and recent leavers were more likely than other poor children to have physical, learning, or mental health conditions that limited activity. Though these studies provide some initial examination of how parental welfare or employment affects youth, they do not directly address the influence of varied childhood economic experiences on later transitions to adulthood. Theoretical Framework Bronfenbrenner and Ceci (1993) outlined a conceptual framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see . A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. that describes how human development is influenced by the environment. This framework proposes that the balance of environmental forces and personal characteristics is determinant determinant, a polynomial expression that is inherent in the entries of a square matrix. The size n of the square matrix, as determined from the number of entries in any row or column, is called the order of the determinant. of outcomes. Since development takes place through a reciprocal Bilateral; two-sided; mutual; interchanged. Reciprocal obligations are duties owed by one individual to another and vice versa. A reciprocal contract is one in which the parties enter into mutual agreements. process between the person and the environment, children are influenced by the context in which they are raised. Research as outlined above has examined this development in the context of poverty; however, Bronfenbrenner's (1988) person-process-context paradigm suggests that a child's environment would not only be influenced by poverty, but also the processes in which the poverty occurs. As Bronfenbrenner outlines, the environment provides constraints CONSTRAINTS - A language for solving constraints using value inference. ["CONSTRAINTS: A Language for Expressing Almost-Hierarchical Descriptions", G.J. Sussman et al, Artif Intell 14(1):1-39 (Aug 1980)]. and opportunities, but does not dictate TO DICTATE. To pronounce word for word what is destined to be at the same time written by another. Merlin Rep. mot Suggestion, p. 5 00; Toull. Dr. Civ. Fr. liv. 3, t. 2, c. 5, n. 410. behavior. Parents in poverty are forced to adapt to their situation and make choices about welfare use and work that have consequences for their children. It is this reciprocal process of environmental constraints and individual choices that is the subject of this study. Using Bronfenbrenner's model, we are specifically interested in investigating whether parental decisions made under the constraints of poverty, creating a specific household context (work-reliant or welfare-reliant), affects their children during emerging adulthood. Given this framework, one would expect, despite living below the poverty level, that outcomes for children who were raised in families where work was the source of income would differ from outcomes for children whose families relied primarily on income from welfare. Methods The first and second waves of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH NSFH National Survey of Families and Households NSFH Not Safe For Humanity ) were used for this analysis (Sweet, Bumpass, & Call, 1988). The NSFH is an ongoing longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. dataset comprising interviews with adults (Wave I and Wave 2) and children (Wave 2). The NSFH used a representative probability sample of households with one adult main respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. selected per household randomly (9,643 interviews). An additional double sampling was used to insure Insure can mean:
adj. Insufficiently or inadequately represented: the underrepresented minority groups, ignored by the government. groups (3,374 interviews), including ethnic minorities, single parent households, families with stepchildren, and cohabiting and newly married couples. This resulted in 13,017 adult Wave 1interviews between 1987 and 1988. The second wave of data was collected in 1992 through 1994 and contains follow-up follow-up, n the process of monitoring the progress of a patient after a period of active treatment. follow-up subsequent. follow-up plan interviews with 10,007 primary respondents (82% follow-up rate) from the original sample and a sample of children (n=2,505) who were between the ages of 5 and 18 in Wave I (Sweet & Bumpass, 1996). This analysis focuses on the 1,090 focal children interviewed in the second wave of data collection who were between the ages of 18 and 23 (ages 13 through 18 in Wave 1). The older focal children interviews had a response rate of 71% (Musick & Bumpass, 1998). For this analysis we used youth from the full dataset who were out of high school and for whom there was sufficient parent and income data (n=835) and a subsample sub·sam·ple n. A sample drawn from a larger sample. tr.v. sub·sam·pled, sub·sam·pling, sub·sam·ples To take a subsample from (a larger sample). of focal children at or below 200% of poverty (n=182). Poverty level was determined using the NSFH poverty variable multiplied mul·ti·ply 1 v. mul·ti·plied, mul·ti·ply·ing, mul·ti·plies v.tr. 1. To increase the amount, number, or degree of. 2. Mathematics To perform multiplication on. by two. Total family income, supplied by the NSFH, was then compared to the 200% cutoff. Demographic variables. Primary respondent variables included age, race, family structure (i.e., whether or not the parents were married at the time of the child's birth), and educational attainment. Using Wave 1 data, parents' educational level was categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat into less than a high school education, a high school degree, and having some college education. Focal child variables included age, gender, and whether or not they have children. Information regarding race/ethnicity was only collected for the primary respondent (parent). Public assistance. Public assistance was defined in the NSFH as welfare, AFDC AFDC abbr. Aid to Families with Dependent Children AFDC n abbr (US) (= Aid to Families with Dependent Children) → ayuda a familias con hijos menores AFDC n abbr , general assistance, food stamps, and emergency assistance. Two predictor variables Noun 1. predictor variable - a variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable (as in statistical regression) variable quantity, variable - a quantity that can assume any of a set of values relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc public assistance were included in this analysis: 1) if the family of the focal child had ever received public assistance; and 2) the number of years the focal child's family had received public assistance. Families were categorized as having been on public assistance at any time if the primary respondent in Waves I and 2 responded that they had received public assistance in a given year. The total number of years the focal child's family had received public assistance was calculated by counting the number of times the primary respondent listed a year as one in which they had received public assistance. Income variables. Income is examined in four ways: 1) total family income; 2) percentage of total family income from public assistance; 3) percentage of total family income from employment; and 4) total family income as a percentage of the poverty line. For total family income, the sum of all income from related individuals in a household was aggregated. The first step in producing the percentage of total income represented by public assistance income was to sum the income from public assistance of all related individuals in a household. This public assistance income variable was then divided by the total family income to get a percent of total income represented by public assistance. The percentage of total family income from employment was calculated in the same way. Income as a percentage of the poverty line was calculated by dividing the total family income by the poverty line data supplied in the Wave 1 data. Work history. Parental work history was determined by examining the total months the responding parent had worked during the youth's childhood. This was divided by the child's age to obtain an average number of months worked during the child's life. Average months per year are included as a variable in several analyses. Outcome variables. Five outcome variables were used: 1) public assistance use; 2) high school dropout; 3) college attendance; 4) idleness; and 5) income. The focal child's receipt of public assistance income is defined as any amount of money received from AFDC, food stamps, general assistance or other forms of public assistance in the 12 months prior to the second wave interview. Though the sample included youth who were 17 in the 12 months prior to their interview and therefore ineligible in·el·i·gi·ble adj. 1. Disqualified by law, rule, or provision: ineligible to run for office; ineligible for health benefits. 2. for certain categories of public assistance, these youth were still eligible for public assistance for their children; since the majority of youth on public assistance were parents, these youth would be included if they received public assistance for their children. In addition, the percentage of 18-year-old youth on public assistance (approximately 8%) was consistent with the other age groups and did not appear to be underrepresented in the public assistance outcome. Respondents who listed any income or responded that they were unsure of the amount of income they received from public assistance are included in this category. There were 97 individuals (8.9% of the sample) classified as receiving public assistance. The education level attained at·tain v. at·tained, at·tain·ing, at·tains v.tr. 1. To gain as an objective; achieve: attain a diploma by hard work. 2. by the focal child at Wave 2 is based on questions asking whether a child had obtained various types of education or received a diploma DIPLOMA. An instrument of writing, executed by, a corporation or society, certifying that a certain person therein named is entitled to a certain distinction therein mentioned. 2. or GED GED abbr. 1. general equivalency diploma 2. general educational development GED (US) n abbr (Scol) (= general educational development) → . The idleness variable was created using several supplied variables: currently in high school or college, currently working, and active in the military. Any focal child who was not in high school, was not in college, was not in the military, and was not working was labeled idle. Income was the sum of all of the income for the focal child at Wave 2. Data analyses included descriptive statistics descriptive statistics see statistics. (i.e., frequencies and percentages), as well as chi-square chi-square (ki´skwar) see under distribution and test. chi-square n. and t-tests. They were used to summarize sum·ma·rize intr. & tr.v. sum·ma·rized, sum·ma·riz·ing, sum·ma·riz·es To make a summary or make a summary of. sum and analyze the data and to compare the full sample to the poverty-only sample. Linear and logistic regression In statistics, logistic regression is a regression model for binomially distributed response/dependent variables. It is useful for modeling the probability of an event occurring as a function of other factors. were used to determine factors associated with outcomes related to the transition to adulthood: education, income, idleness, and public assistance use. Results Sample Description As stated earlier, the analysis relied on both the full sample (n=835) of NSFH focal children and a poverty-only sample (n=182). Demographic information for both samples is provided in Table 1. The two samples were significantly different in terms of race, responding parent's age, responding parent's educational status, family income, family public assistance use, and family structure at child's birth. As would be expected, the poverty sample had a larger percentage of minorities, a higher percentage of public assistance use, a lower percentage of college graduates, and a lower percentage of families that were married at the time of the focal child's birth. Bivariate bi·var·i·ate adj. Mathematics Having two variables: bivariate binomial distribution. Adj. 1. Analyses Preliminary analyses were conducted to examine bivariate associations between poverty, childhood welfare use, and transition outcomes. Specifically, chi-square analyses and t-tests, displayed in Table 2, show group differences for the full sample in transition outcomes based on childhood poverty. Consistent with previous literature, results suggest that poverty in childhood (being at or below 200% of the poverty line) is associated with lower educational attainment, increased use of public assistance, and youth idleness in early adulthood. Results are similar when evaluating childhood poverty using the poverty line as the indicator. Similarly, as shown in Table 3, family welfare use during childhood is associated with more negative outcomes during the transition to adulthood. Chi-square analysis and a t-test t-test, n an inferential statistic used to test for differences between two means (groups) only. This statistic is used for small samples (e.g., N < 30). Also called t-ratio, stu-dent's t. were used to assess group differences in transition outcomes for youth whose families had a history of being on welfare and youth who did not. Significant differences were found in educational attainment, youth public assistance use, and youth idleness during this transition period. To investigate the association between welfare and work context and transition outcomes, bivariate analyses were also conducted. High school dropouts had significantly more years on welfare in childhood (t=-2.26, p=.03), a significantly higher percentage of their family's income coming from welfare (t=-1.99, p=.05), and a significantly lower percentage of their family's income coming from work (t=2.52, p=.01) than non-high school dropouts. Other differences in educational attainment were associated with years spent on public assistance during childhood, the percentage of family income from work, and the percentage of family income from public assistance. Similar differences were also found among youth on public assistance in early adulthood; their families spent more years on welfare in childhood (t=-3.67, p<.001), a significantly higher percentage of their family's income came from welfare (t=-3.09, p<.01), and a significantly lower percentage of their family's income came from work (t=2.68, p<.01) compared to youth not on public assistance. The only aspect of the welfare/work context that was significantly associated with youth idleness was percentage of family income from public assistance (t=-2.13, p=.03). In addition, only years on public assistance during childhood was predictive of youth income during this transition period (t=-2.61, p<.01). Bivariate analyses were also conducted using the poverty-only sample (n=182). For this sample, family welfare use was associated with high school dropout ([X.sup.2]=3.74, p=.05), welfare use in early adulthood ([X.sup.2]=13.08, p<.001), and idleness ([X.sup.2]=3.84, p=.05). Welfare/work context variables were only associated with later youth welfare use. Specifically, the number of years on welfare (t=-3.41, p<.01), the percentage of income from earnings (t=2.81, p<.01), and the percentage of income from public assistance (t=-3.08, p<.01) were associated with welfare use in early adulthood. Multivariate Analyses Using Full Sample To investigate the effect of the childhood context on transition outcomes, a series of multiple regressions Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. were conducted. These analyses, shown in Table 4, examined the influence of poverty and family welfare use on transition outcomes. These models utilized general indicators of poverty and welfare use in early adulthood. Youth characteristics, including gender, age, parenthood, and educational level, and parental characteristics, including race, educational level, and marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. at birth were controlled. Logistic models logistic models, n.pl statistical models that describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one that can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. that examined high school dropout, college attendance, youth public assistance, and youth idleness, as well as a linear model examining youth income, are also presented. Results from these analyses indicated that childhood poverty was statistically associated with high rates of high school dropout and decreased college attendance even after controlling for other variables. Family public assistance use was found to significantly increase the likelihood of a youth being on public assistance during early adulthood and decrease the likelihood of college attendance. Other predictors of negative outcomes in the transition to adulthood were being a parent while a young adult, not having a high school diploma, and low parental educational attainment. Not surprisingly, being a parent during this time period was strongly associated with all of the negative youth outcomes that were investigated. Additional analyses were then conducted for the full sample to examine whether the welfare/work context as indicated by the number of years on public assistance, the average number of months a parent worked, the percent of income from public assistance, and the percent of income from work, had an impact on transition outcomes when controlling for other variables. In each analysis, the welfare/work context variables proved to be insignificant. General indicators of poverty and welfare use predicted youth transition outcomes, but these more specific context variables did not. Multivariate Analyses Using Poverty Sample Since the overall sample (n=835) had less than 22% poor young adults, it may have been difficult to uncover the effects of the welfare/work context using this sample. The effects of these more specific context indicators may have been masked A state of being disabled or cut off. in this larger sample. To further assess whether a work-reliant or welfare-reliant environment had an effect on transition outcomes, additional analyses examined a sample of youth who were at or below 200% of the poverty line (n=182). In Table 5, results for the poverty-only sample are presented. When examining this limited sample, results again indicate that growing up in a welfare-reliant or work-reliant environment is not associated with different outcomes. In all key transition outcomes the number of years the youth's family spent on public assistance, parent's work history, amount of family income from work, and amount of family income from public assistance were insignificant. Having a child during early adulthood predicted negative outcomes in all five markers of the transition period. Gender, youth educational attainment, and parent educational attainment were also related to transition outcomes. Discussion Few studies have addressed the specific effect of welfare-reliant or work-reliant environments on an adolescent's transition to adulthood. This study filled this gap by examining how parental work history, family welfare use during childhood, and the amount of income from welfare and work were associated with specific indicators of successful transitions into early adulthood. Relying on the ecological ecological emanating from or pertaining to ecology. ecological biome see biome. ecological climax the state of balance in an ecosystem when its inhabitants have established their permanent relationships with each model, which suggests that humans develop through a reciprocal process with the environment and that these interactions vary based on both the individual and the particular environment (Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1993), would indicate that poverty, as well as the context in which it occurred, would affect childhood development. Research has consistently demonstrated the strong influence poverty has on child development, including mental and physical health, school performance, and less successful transitions to adulthood (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Sherman, 1997; Vandivere, et al., 2000). Consistent with such research, this study found childhood poverty was associated with lower rates of college attendance and higher rates of high school dropout. In addition, family welfare use was associated with a child's welfare use in early adulthood. Though this study showed additional evidence of links between poverty and childhood outcomes, it was unable to establish a link between the context of this poverty and these outcomes. Specifically, growing up in a welfare-reliant or work-reliant environment did not have a differential effect on poor children's outcomes in the transition to adulthood. Whether the welfare or work context was measured by time or by source of income did not influence the results, this was true in both the full sample and the poverty sample. This may suggest that the ecological context of poverty is so strong that it is detrimental to child development regardless of other factors. In addition, Bronfenbrenner (1988) suggests that environmental factors will affect individuals in different ways, therefore indicating that a work-oriented household may be beneficial for some youth, but neutral for others. These outcomes also imply that attempts to put parents to work without alleviating their poverty may do little to produce better outcomes for their children, as prior studies indicate that about 50 to 75% of individuals exiting welfare are below the poverty level (Danziger, et al., 2002; Moffit & Roff, 2000). Similar to previous findings (Morris & Gennetian, 2003), changes in income level rather than parental employment affect child outcomes. For welfare-reliant mothers who do return to work, various costs, including decreased time with children, overtiredness, less energy when with children, parental absence and its relation to child behavior, and childcare, are offset primarily by increased income (London, Scott, Edin, & Hunter, 2004). Without income increases, work may yield little benefit to these families. For youth living in poverty, it appears not to be the extent of the welfare or work environment that influences transition outcomes, but rather another set of factors related to their educational attainment, gender, parent's educational attainment, and choices about early parenting. Findings from this study have several implications for welfare policy. Policies currently aimed at increasing self-sufficiency should also seek to improve youth outcomes in emerging adulthood if they hope to decrease future welfare dependency dependency In international relations, a weak state dominated by or under the jurisdiction of a more powerful state but not formally annexed by it. Examples include American Samoa (U.S.) and Greenland (Denmark). . Programs that focus on the antecedents to idleness, low income, low educational attainment, and public assistance use during the transition to adulthood would be better able to end the cycle of poverty than programs aimed solely at putting parents to work. Welfare policymakers should seek to understand and target programs at the barriers that impoverished im·pov·er·ished adj. 1. Reduced to poverty; poverty-stricken. See Synonyms at poor. 2. Deprived of natural richness or strength; limited or depleted: youth face during this critical period of development. Further, work-first approaches may not be enough to adequately influence youth outcomes. Alleviating poverty seems to be a key factor in influencing these outcomes. One potential program component that works to decrease poverty, earned income Sources of money derived from the labor, professional service, or entrepreneurship of an individual taxpayer as opposed to funds generated by investments, dividends, and interest. disregards, has been evaluated. The Minnesota Family Investment Program (MFIP MFIP Minnesota Family Investment Program MFIP Multi-Function Interoperability Processor MFIP Monitored Fitness Improvement Program MFIP Multi Function Image Processor ), implemented pre-welfare reform to test earned income disregards, increased employment and earnings and reduced poverty (Gennetian, Knox, & Miller, 2000). The MFIP findings are important because over 40 states incorporated such disregards post-reform. These evaluations further demonstrate that it is the increase in income that benefits children and not the employment, per se. Furthermore, having children predicted negative outcomes in the transition to adulthood in every multiple regression model. This suggests that more should be done to curb teen childbearing. Abstinence-only education has not been effective; in fact, most of the education has been regarded as "barely adequate to completely inadequate" (Howell, 2001, p. 1). Effective sex education programs should combine three common attributes: 1) clearly focusing on sexual behavior sexual behavior A person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. and contraceptive contraceptive /con·tra·cep·tive/ (-sep´tiv) 1. diminishing the likelihood of or preventing conception. 2. an agent that so acts. use; 2) sending a clear message that abstaining from sex is the safest choice for teens; and 3) if the teenager Teenager See also Adolescence. Ah, Wilderness! high-school senior has problems with girls and his father. [Am. Drama: O’Neill Ah, Wilderness! in Sobel, 15] Aldrich, Henry teenaged film character of the 1940s. [Am. is sexually active, promoting the use of protection against STDs and pregnancy (Kirby, 2001). This study provides some insight into the influence of welfare and work contexts on the transition to adulthood for impoverished youth; however, these findings are limited. First, it is important to understand that these data were collected in the pre-welfare reform era (i.e., pre- pre- word element [L.], before (in time or space). pre- pref. 1. Earlier; before; prior to: prenatal. 2. 1996). This means that the population on welfare was not exposed to the same sanctions Sanctions is the plural of sanction. Depending on context, a sanction can be either a punishment or a permission. The word is a contronym. Sanctions involving countries: This suggests that in the pre-welfare reform era, parents who left welfare for work were better off than those people working today; they were working based on choice and ability, rather than government requirements. Recent research suggests that for women who are required to work based on state work requirements, employment during their child's early years is associated with negative outcomes, while for mothers living in states without such requirements returning to work voluntarily is associated with positive outcomes (Brady-Smith, 2002). If a work-reliant environment is more beneficial for children, this fact should have been more apparent during the pre-welfare reform era when parents transitioned from welfare to work voluntarily. Since the data did not show this effect, this may be a stronger indication that work programs that people experience today are even less likely to have an effect on their children. A second limitation in this study is that the NSFH data, though longitudinal, may not present an entirely accurate picture of family income. Data collected at only a few interviews may not be representative of a family's entire income history over the lifetime of the study. To overcome this limitation, we used the number of years on welfare and average months worked during the child's life in addition to point in time estimates to gauge poverty. A third limitation relates to the fact that the transition to adulthood is a long-term, ongoing process, lasting from ages 18-25 (Arnett, 2000). Though all of the youth in this study were 18-23, the youth who were 18 had less time to experience the transition outcomes being assessed. Though attempts were made to control for this using multivariate analysis multivariate analysis, n a statistical approach used to evaluate multiple variables. multivariate analysis, n a set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. , the analysis cannot predict what youth will experience as they continue to move through their transition. Recently released data from the third wave of the NSFH, conducted in 2001-2002, when youth were 27-32, will provide further insight into the youth's transition experiences. Despite these limitations, this study makes a valuable contribution by illuminating il·lu·mi·nate v. il·lu·mi·nat·ed, il·lu·mi·nat·ing, il·lu·mi·nates v.tr. 1. To provide or brighten with light. 2. To decorate or hang with lights. 3. the shortcomings A shortcoming is a character flaw. Shortcomings may also be:
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Interacting systems in human development: Research paradigms: Present and future. In N. Bolger & A. Caspi & et al. (Eds.), Persons in context: Developmental processes. (pp. 25-49). New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , NY, US: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). . Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1993). Heredity heredity, transmission from generation to generation through the process of reproduction in plants and animals of factors which cause the offspring to resemble their parents. That like begets like has been a maxim since ancient times. , environment, and the question "How?": A first approximation approximation /ap·prox·i·ma·tion/ (ah-prok?si-ma´shun) 1. the act or process of bringing into proximity or apposition. 2. a numerical value of limited accuracy. . In R. Plomin & G. E. McClearn (Eds.), Nature, nurture NURTURE. The act of taking care of children and educating them: the right to the nurture of children generally belongs to the father till the child shall arrive at the age of fourteen years, and not longer. Till then, he is guardian by nurture. Co. Litt. 38 b. & psychology. (pp. 313-324). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. Description and history The association has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. . Brown, B. V. & Emig, C. (1999). Prevalence, patterns, and outcomes. In D. J. Besharov (Ed.), America's disconnected youth (pp. 101-116). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2002). College enrollment and work activity of year 2001 high school graduates. Retrieved April 22, 2003 from http://www.bls.gov/ news.release/hsgec.nr0.htm. Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Moffit, R. A., Lohman, B. J., Cherlin, A. J., Coley, R. L., Pittman, L. D., Roff, J., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2003, March 7). Mothers' transitions from welfare to work and the well-being of preschoolers and adolescents. Science, 299, 1548-1552. Danziger, S., Heflin, C., Corcoran, M., Oltmans, E., & Wang (Wang Laboratories, Inc., Lowell, MA) A computer services and network integration company. Wang was one of the major early contributors to the computing industry from its founder's invention that made core memory possible, to leadership in desktop calculators and word processors. , H. (2002). Does it Pay to Move from Welfare to Work? 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Families and schools in hard times. New directions of child development, 46, 7-26. Gennetian, L. A., Knox, V. W., & Miller, C. (2000, September). Reforming welfare and rewarding work: A summary of the final report on the Minnesota Family Investment Program. Manpower Demonstration Corporation. Available: http://www.mdrc.org/publications/27/summary.html. Howell, M. (2001). The future of sexuality education: Science or politics? Transitions, 12(3). Kirby, D. (2001). Emerging answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. London, A. S., Scott, E. K., Edin, K., & Hunter, V. (2004). Welfare reform, work-family tradeoffs, and child well-being. Family Relations, 53 (2), 148-158. Lutenbacher, M., & Hall, L. A. (1998). The effects of maternal psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. factors on parenting attitudes of low-income, single mothers with young children. Nursing research, 47(1), 25-34. McLanahan, S. S. (1997). Parent absence or poverty: Which matters more? In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 35-48). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. McLoyd, V. C. & Wilson, L. (1990). Maternal behavior, social support, and economic conditions as predictors of distress in children. New directions of child development, 46, 49-69. Moffit, R., Cherlin, A., Burton, L., King, M., & Roff, J. (2002). The characteristics of families remaining on welfare (Working Paper No. 02-02): Welfare, children, and families: A three-city study. Moffit, R., & Roff, J. (2000). The Diversity of Welfare Leavers (Working Paper 00-01): Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three-City Study. Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University, mainly at Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins in 1867 had a group of his associates incorporated as the trustees of a university and a hospital, endowing each with $3.5 million. Daniel C. . Morris, P. & Gennetian, L. (2003). Identifying the effects of income on children's development using experimental data. Journal of Marriage & Family, 65, 716-729. Musick, K. and L. Bumpass (1998). How Do Prior Experiences in the Family Affect Transitions to Adulthood? Center for Demography demography (dĭmŏg`rəfē), science of human population. Demography represents a fundamental approach to the understanding of human society. and Ecology ecology, study of the relationships of organisms to their physical environment and to one another. The study of an individual organism or a single species is termed autecology; the study of groups of organisms is called synecology. , University of Wisconsin-Madison “University of Wisconsin” redirects here. For other uses, see University of Wisconsin (disambiguation). A public, land-grant institution, UW-Madison offers a wide spectrum of liberal arts studies, professional programs, and student activities. , NSFH Working Paper No. 81 National Integrated Quality Control System. (1993). AFDC-Overview-Race of Parents: Fiscal Year 1993. Orthner, D. K. & Randolph, K. A. (1999). Welfare reform and high school dropout patterns for children. Children and youth services review, 21(9/10), 881-900. Powers, D. A. (1996). Social background and social context effects on young men's idleness transitions. Social science research, 25, 50-72. Shanahan, M. J. (2000). Pathways to adulthood in changing societies: variability and mechanisms in life course perspective. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 667-692. Sherman, A. (1997). Poverty Matters: The Cost of Child Poverty in America. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund The Children's Defense Fund (CDF) is a national organization that is committed to the social Welfare of children. Founded in 1973, the nonprofit group uses its annual $9 million budget to lobby legislators and to speak out publicly on a broad array of issues on the law, the family, and . Smith, J. R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1997). Consequences of living in poverty for young children's cognitive and verbal ability and early school achievement. In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 132-189). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Sugarman, S. (1998). Single-parent families single-parent family Social medicine A family unit with a mother or father and unmarried children. See Father 'factor.', Latchkey children, Quality time, Supermom. Cf Extended family, Nuclear family, Two parent advantage. . In S. D. Sugarman (Ed.), All our families: New policies for a new century (pp. 13-38). New York: Oxford University Press. Sweet, J.A and L. Bumpass (1996). The National Survey of Families and Households--Waves 1 and 2: Data Description and Documentation. Center for Demography and Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison (http://www .ssc.wisc.edu/nsfh/home.htm). Sweet, J.A., Bumpass, L., & Call, V. (1988). The Design and Content of The National Survey of Families and Households. Center for Demography and Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, NSFH Working Paper #1. Tout, K., Scarpa, J., & Zaslow, M. J. (2002, March). Children of current and former welfare recipients: Similarly at risk. Child Trends Research Brief, Washington, DC. US Census Bureau. (2002a). 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Commonly referred to as UC Berkeley, Berkeley and Cal
Table 1
Demographic Information for Full and Poverty Sample
Poverty
Full Sample Sample
(n=835) (n=182)
Child
characteristics
Age Mean (SD) 20.7 (1.8) 20.5 (1.7)
Gender Male 48.1% 44.5%
Female 51.9% 55.5%
Family
characteristics
Race White 80.8% 62.4%
Black 12.5% 22.1%
Hispanic 6.1% 13.8%
Asian 0.6% 1.7%
Responding Mean (SD) 26.9 (6.1) 26.0 (7.2)
parent's
age at
child's birth
Responding Did not complete 13.2% 28%
parent's high school
educational H.S. graduate 41.9% 48.4%
attainment Some college
or more 44.9% 23.6%
Family income Mean $42,398.78 $11,485.39
at Wave 1 (SD) (51154.83) (6552.03)
Family public Ever on public 12.0% 34.1%
assistance use assistance
Family Biological 81.0% 69.2%
intact at birth parents
married
at child's
birth
Significance
Test
Child
characteristics
Age Mean (SD) P=.07
Gender Male P=.27
Female
Family
characteristics
Race White P<.0001
Black
Hispanic
Asian
Responding Mean (SD) P=.05
parent 's
age at
child's birth
Responding Did not complete P<.0001
parent's high school
educational H.S. graduate
attainment Some college
or more
Family income Mean P<.0001
at Wave 1 (SD)
Family public Ever on public P<.0001
assistance use assistance
Family Biological P<.0001
intact at birth parents
married
at child's
birth
Table 2
Transition Characteristics among Youth
Based on Childhood Poverty
Status Youth Youth
at/below above Significance
200% poverty 200% poverty Test
Educational HS dropout 15.4% 5.2% P<.0001
Attainment HS graduate 36.3% 26.2%
Some college 48.4% 68.6%
or more
Youth Public Assistance 13.2% 6.3% P<.01
Youth Idleness 28.0% 19.5% P<.01
Mean Youth Income $8,806 $9,707 P=.29
(SD=10190) (SD=10144)
Table 3
Transition Characteristics among
Youth Based on Childhood Welfare
Status Family No family Significance
history welfare Test
of welfare history
use
Educational HS dropout 16.0% 6.3% P<.0001
Attainment HS graduate 44.0% 26.3%
Some college 40% 67.5%
or more
Youth Public Assistance 23.0% 5.7% P<.0001
Youth Idleness 29.0% 20.3% P<.05
Mean Youth Income $8,338 $9,670 P=.22
(SD=9605) (SD=10264)
Table 4
Full Sample Multiple Regressions of Youth Public
Assistance, High School Dropout,
College Attendance, Idleness,
and Income
Youth Outcomes
Welfare High School
Predictor Use (OR) Dropout
Variables (OR)
Youth
Characteristics
Gender Female Reference Reference
Male 0.32 ** 1.45
Age 0.82 * 0.92
Have children 8.5 ** 8.84 **
Educational level H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate 0.41 * N/A
College 1.03 N/A
Live at home 2.09 * 0.77
Family/Parent
Characteristics
Race White Reference Reference
Black 1.26 0.57
Other 0.55 0.48
Parent's education H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate 0.63 0.29 **
College 0.68 0.33 **
Family intact at
child's birth 0.66 1.05
Family ever on
public assistance 3.25 ** 1.42
Family at/below
200% poverty 0.87 2.21 *
Youth Outcomes
College Idleness
Predictor Attendance (OR)
Variables (OR)
Youth
Characteristics
Gender Female Reference Reference
Male 0.61 ** 0.88
Age 1.16 ** 1.02
Have children 0.13 ** 1.89 **
Educational level H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate N/A 0.67
College N/A 0.31 **
Live at home 1.33 1.03
Family/Parent
Characteristics
Race White Reference Reference
Black 1.52 0.95
Other 3.46 ** 0.92
Parent's education H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate 1.03 0.64
College 2.99 0.94
Family intact at
child's birth 1.11 * 0.68
Family ever on
public assistance 0.52 * 0.97
Family at/below
200% poverty 0.64 * 1.11
Youth Outcomes
Income
Predictor Logged
Variables (Parameter
estimate)
Youth
Characteristics
Gender Female Reference
Male 1.55 **
Age 0.30 **
Have children -1.62 **
Educational level H.S. dropout Reference
H.S. graduate 1.58 **
College -0.21
Live at home -0.21
Family/Parent
Characteristics
Race White Reference
Black -0.86 *
Other -1.05
Parent's education H.S. dropout Reference
H.S. graduate -0.16
College -0.65
Family intact at
child's birth 0.46
Family ever on
public assistance -0.44
Family at/below
200% poverty 0.09
* p < .05 ** p < .01
Table 5
Poverty Sample Multiple Regressions of Youth Public
Assistance, High School Dropout, College Attendance,
Idleness, and Income
Youth Outcomes
Predictor Welfare
Variables Use (OR)
Youth
Characteristics
Gender Female Reference
Male 0.06**
Age 0.89
Have children 6.50*
Educational level H.S. dropout Reference
H.S. graduate 0.22
College 1.78
Live at home 4.46
Family/Parent
Characteristics
Race White Reference
Black 1.19
Other 0.48
Parent's education H.S. dropout Reference
H.S. graduate 0.35
College 0.72
Family intact at child's birth 2.64
Family ever on public assistance 1.56
Years on public assistance 1.29
Average months parent worked 1.07
Public assistance as a percent of 4.72
family income
Earnings from work as a percent of 2.91
family income
Youth Outcomes
Predictor High School College
Variables Dropout (OR) Attendance
(OR)
Youth
Characteristics
Gender Female Reference Reference
Male 1.21 0.52
Age 1.00 0.99
Have children 5.38 ** 0.18 **
Educational level H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate N/A N/A
College N/A N/A
Live at home 0.91 1.2
Family/Parent
Characteristics
Race White Reference Reference
Black 0.38 1.16
Other 0.82 2.40
Parent's education H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate 0.58 1.01
College 0.057 2.99 *
Family intact at child's birth 0.98 0.93
Family ever on public assistance 1.82 0.64
Years on public assistance 0.99 1.03
Average months parent worked 1.00 1.02
Public assistance as a percent of 1.51 0.66
family income
Earnings from work as a percent of 0.87 0.79
family income
Youth Outcomes
Predictor Idleness Income Logged
Variables (OR) (Parameter
estimate)
Youth
Characteristics
Gender Female Reference Reference
Male 0.49 2.80 **
Age 1.12 0.12
Have children 2.83 * -2.01 **
Educational level H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate 1.51 1.74 *
College 0.18 ** 0.23
Live at home 1.17 -0.05
Family/Parent
Characteristics
Race White Reference Reference
Black 1.85 -0.87
Other 2.22 -0.84
Parent's education H.S. dropout Reference Reference
H.S. graduate 0.67 -0.29
College 1.65 -0.13
Family intact at child's birth 2.09 -0.74
Family ever on public assistance 1.63 0.19
Years on public assistance 0.94 -0.09
Average months parent worked 0.96 0.09
Public assistance as a percent of 3.50 -1.39
family income
Earnings from work as a percent of 3.77 -2.14
family income
* p <.05 ** p <.01
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