"The mother of all battles": in the 1991 Persian Gulf war, a U.S.-led coalition ousted Iraq from Kuwait. But the conflict didn't end there. (times past).

The U.S. Marines entering Kuwait City on February 27, 1991, didn't know what to expect. Kuwait had been overrun seven months earlier by Iraqi troops. Saddam Hussein's soldiers, some of whom had a formidable reputation, had looted and destroyed the capital, one of the Middle East's richest cities.

Now an American-led coalition had arrived, determined to free Kuwait. Out of the nation's wreckage, throngs of Kuwaitis sprang up to greet U.S. soldiers as liberators. Marine Gen. Walt Boomer recalled:

They came down to the side of the road by the thousands and they had Kuwaiti flags and some had American flags.... What they were saying was "God bless you, America. God bless you."

It was a triumphant moment for the U.S. military, which had struggled for two decades with the legacy of defeat in Vietnam. It was also a vindication of President George Bush, father of President George W. Bush; working through the United Nations, he had built the international coalition that defeated Iraq.

But after the cheering ended, victory in the Persian Gulf war seemed strangely hollow. Bush had billed the war as the first step in building a more lawful world. Yet the biggest practical effect was to keep Middle Eastern oil flowing. And Saddam, a man often called the "Butcher of Baghdad," was left in control of Iraq.

BAGHDAD'S BLITZKRIEG

The ferocity of Iraq's August 2, 1990, invasion of Kuwait had shocked the world. Eyewitnesses told of widespread atrocities by Iraqi soldiers. One reported what happened after soldiers rounded up six Kuwaiti boys, most of them about 15 or 16 years old:

The soldiers were beating the boys with an [antenna] across the face, head, and legs ... after a few minutes we heard the sound of gunfire and rushing to the window we saw the five bigger boys lying on the ground.

The attack also caught Bush off guard. In 1979, when a revolution turned Iran from friendly to anti-American, the U.S. began pouring billions in aid into rival Iraq. Saddam launched a war against Iran that lasted eight years and ended in a standoff.

The conflict left Saddam nearly bankrupt and owing billions to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Iraq tried to raise money to rebuild by selling its oil, but prices were low. Saddam accused the Kuwaitis of flooding the market. (He also claimed Kuwait should be part of Iraq, since the territories had been joined briefly, until the early 1900s, under the Ottoman Empire.)

Saddam's invasion was intended to erase his debt to Kuwait and add to Iraq's huge oil reserves. From Kuwait, he could also attack or bully Saudi Arabia, effectively giving him control over nearly half the world's oil.

SKITTISH ABOUT WAR

American troops were rushed to Saudi Arabia, a move that started a heated debate in the U.S. Ever since the Vietnam War, the nation had been wary of overseas conflict. This skittishness convinced Saddam that the U.S. would not intervene in Kuwait. Americans "cannot accept 10,000 dead in one battle," he said.

The UN condemned the invasion and imposed economic sanctions. Iraq's friends like the Soviet Union and France tried to negotiate at least a partial withdrawal from Kuwait. But Saddam dug in. For several months, he used civilians from Western countries caught in Kuwait as "human shields," placing them at potential military targets. Though Saddam finally released the hostages, Bush declared:

We're dealing with Hitler revisited, a totalitarianism and a brutality that is naked and unprecedented in modern times. And that must not stand.

Over a few months, Bush assembled a coalition of 37 countries to respond to Iraq's invasion; 27 agreed to provide troops along with the U.S., which would make up the bulk of the allied invasion force. The UN gave Iraq until January 15, 1991, to withdraw from Kuwait. As the deadline approached, the U.S. Congress debated an attack, with the Senate approving a war resolution by just five votes. Coalition members like France and Germany argued to give the sanctions more time.

But on January 16, Bush unleashed Operation Desert Storm, beginning with a relentless air assault against Iraqi targets that lasted more than a month. The devastating attacks came in part because of Saddam's threat to fight the "mother of all battles." He had chemical and biological weapons (previously used against Iran and Kurdish rebels). He fired Scud missiles at civilians in Israel in an attempt to widen the war.

But the air attack largely destroyed his military's command and control structure--its ability to communicate and fight. The ground war, which began on February 24, ended after just 100 hours. As the Iraqis retreated from Kuwait, U.S. warplanes bombed their columns on what became known as the "Highway of Death."

Between 25,000 and 100,000 Iraqi soldiers were killed overall. Of the 700,000 Allied troops, 240 died--146 of them American.

Saddam never used weapons of mass destruction, probably for fear of retaliation. Bush assumed the dictator had been fatally weakened by the war, and urged Iraqis to rise up against him. But Saddam rallied his troops and slaughtered tens of thousands of rebels, including Kurds and Shiites who were expecting U.S. assistance that never came. Allied forces could have stopped the massacre and deposed Saddam. But Bush feared becoming embroiled in an Iraqi civil war or a long occupation.

NO SIMPLE VICTORY

During and after the war, Bush declared that a "new world order" was at hand, one in which "the rule of law, not the law of the jungle, governs the conduct of nations." His rhetoric seemed to fit the moment. After all, Kuwait was liberated and Middle Eastern oil flowed again. Unlike the end of the Vietnam War, victorious U.S. troops now marched through Washington as thousands cheered.

But Bush, whose approval ratings were high during the war, was voted out of office in 1992. Saddam, meanwhile, consolidated his power. He threw out UN weapons inspectors, challenged economic sanctions, and even tried to assassinate Bush when the former President visited Kuwait.

In 1991, people laughed when Saddam called the Gulf War a great triumph. Twelve years later, as he squared off with Bush's son, it was clear that the first American victory had been far from complete.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

* Why would President Bush fear a long occupation of Iraq?

* Critics of the 1991 war say it was waged only to protect U.S. oil supplies. Is this sufficient reason to go to war?

* From what you've heard in the news, how is the planned 2003 war against Iraq different from the 1991 war?

TEACHING OBJECTIVES

To help students understand why the U.S. went to war against Iraq in 1991 and why, in spite of a quick allied victory, Saddam Hussein survived.

CLASSROOM STRATEGIES

BACKGROUND: Note that Iraq had once received billions in U.S. aid. One reason was Washington's worry about the rise of radical Islam in neighboring Iran, long a U.S. ally. In 1979, Iran seized American hostages (see The New York Times Upfront, Jan. 10, 2003, p. 26). What do these shifting alliances say about relations between countries? (What a country sees as its national interest at one time may change, and with it, relations with other nations.)

HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: Divide the class into two teams. Members of each team must answer questions posed by a student moderator. Students must use their own reasoning, based on information in the article, to take sides on the moderator's questions. You can ensure that all students contribute to the discussion by encouraging them to elaborate on points made by fellow team members or by criticizing points made by opponents.

Here are a few suggested questions for the moderator:

* Should the U.S. maintain ties with dictators? Must the U.S. accept the world as it is (as it did with Iraq in the 1980s), or should the U.S. deal only with nations that respect human rights? What are the pros and cons of each position?

* Suppose Iraq was correct in its charge that Kuwait was flooding the oil market, thus keeping prices low and hampering Iraq's rebuilding effort. Would that justify Iraq's 1990 occupation of Kuwait?

* Is the U.S. responsible for the deaths of Kurds and Shiites by encouraging Iraqis to rise against Saddam, but then failing to help them? What reasons might Bush have had for not intervening?

* Did President Bush miscalculate in allowing Saddam Hussein to remain in power? What were Bush's choices?

WEB WATCH: For a PBS survey of the war, including a chronology, air and ground attacks, and maps see www.pbs.org/ wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/.

Upfront QUIZ 4

MULTIPLE CHOICE

DIRECTIONS: Circle the letter next to the correct answer.

1. Saddam Hussein believed the U.S. would not challenge
   his invasion of Kuwait because Americans were still
   skittish about overseas conflict after their experience in

   a Panama.
   b Vietnam.
   c Korea.
   d Cuba.

2. The biggest practical effect of the Persian Gulf war was

   a the complete defeat of Iraq.
   b the restoration of democracy in Kuwait.,
   c the weakening of Saddam Hussein's power.
   d the continued flow of Middle East oil.

3. To justify his 1990 invasion, Saddam Hussein accused
   Kuwait of hurting Iraq by

   a flooding the oil market, thus keeping prices low.
   b remaining on friendly terms with the U.S.
   c trading with Iran, his former wartime foe.
   d seizing an Iraqi island in the Persian Gulf.

4. What action did the United Nations take following Iraq's
   invasion of Kuwait? The UN

   a promoted the breaking of diplomatic relations with Iraq.
   b set up a peace conference in Switzerland.
   c imposed economic sanctions on Iraq.
   d sent weapons inspectors to Kuwait.

5. For several months after his August 1990, invasion of
   Kuwait, Saddam Hussein

   a tried to negotiate a peaceful resolution of the situation.
   b threatened to invade Saudi Arabia.
   c held civilians from Western nations as "human shields."
   d offered to leave Kuwait in exchange for a large ransom.

6. The U.S. did not help anti-Saddam rebels or try to overthrow
   Saddam because the first President Bush feared

   a Iraq's military.
   b the UN might object.
   c involvement in an Iraqi civil war or a long occupation.
   d continued war costs would hurt the U.S. economy.

Upfront Quiz 4, page 6

1. (b) Vietnam
2. (d) the continued flow of Middle
       East oil.
3. (a) flooding the oil market, thus
       keeping prices low.
4. (c) imposed economic sanctions on
       Iraq.
5. (c) held Western civilians as "human
       shields."
6. (c) involvement in an Iraqi civil war
       or a long occupation.