"Escaping the body's gaol": The poetry of Anne Bronte.

"She thought not of the grave, for that is but the
body's gaol, but of all that is beyond it."
                        Ellen Nussey (Gaskell 297)

A well-known and still ubiquitous twentieth-century reference source dismisses Anne Bronte as "the youngest and least gifted of the celebrated Bronte sisters," and "writer of a few negligible poems" (de Ford 73). Often side-stepped by critics and underrated by Charlotte Bronte herself, Anne Bronte's work sheds light on the intriguing Bronte family, but more importantly it reveals the inner thoughts of an early Victorian woman struggling to find an authentic voice. I believe that Bronte's poems chart her progress from derivative copyist at the side of Emily Bronte, her sister and early literary twin, through an increasing self-awareness arising from her experiences as a governess, to a fully-realized expression of her mature views and beliefs. Anne Bronte uses images of confinement and loneliness and metaphors of prisons and tombs throughout this journey. Instead of outgrowing this conventional Romantic vocabulary that has been bequeathed and taught her, she learns to reuse it as a language that describes her own understanding of life's boundaries.

Anne Bronte does not fit the mold created by Charlotte, Emily, and Branwell Bronte and their later mythmakers. As a poet she works much more in the tradition of earlier hymn writers and poets such as Cowper and Moore, and is much closer to Wordsworth, among Romantic writers, than the Byron and Shelley favored by her siblings. Anne Bronte's poetry emphasizes the faculty of reason, specifically reason aided by conscience. Emotions are not inconsequential in her work, but they hold a subservient position to the discipline of the intellect. Her most mature works lead her to positions that at first may be seen as conventional or overly pious. In fact Anne Bronte's views on a generous and forgiving deity and on universal salvation are not common, but represent a philosophy reached on her own through both logical analysis and much soul-searching.

Bronte's preferred methodology is a self-reflexive examination of her own personal experiences. Apart from the Gondal poems, which are based on the imaginary land and characters of Gondal that she invented and shared with Emily, all of Bronte's poetry arises from personal experience. She tries to make sense of her life by subjecting these experiences to intellectual scrutiny and challenge by other views. She does not shy away from examining difficult issues; and Anne Bronte's life experiences were difficult. Apart from the relatively stable years between her two older sisters' deaths when she was five until she went away to school at age fifteen, she was either away from home and homesick, or back in her fathers parsonage becoming increasingly alienated from other family members. Still she worked successfully as a governess for five years, published two novels, two poems in magazines, and a joint volume of poetry with Charlotte and Emily, all before her death at age twenty-nine. She was sent to school at all only because Emily was unable to adjust to life away from Haworth and could not finish out her term; Charlotte, who taught at the school, barely mentions her youngest sister in her abundant correspondence from this period. When Charlotte and Emily travelcd to Brussels to prepare themselves to open a girls' school, Anne Bronte was not invited to go. The major joys of her life were the yearly visits to the sea at Scarborough while she was employed by the Robinson family. After her resignation, probably as a result of Branwell's indiscretions with Mrs. Robinson, those trips came to an end. It is not believed that she was ever offered an opportunity to marry.

Many of Bronte's poems use words that express confinement: cages, tombs, prisons, dungeons, chains. This device is not unexpected since the poetry and novels by women of this era are permeated by what Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar have called an "oppressive imagery of confinement that reveals that the female artist feels trapped and sickened by suffocating alternatives, and by the culture that created them" (64). What is strikingly unique is that Anne Bronte finds alternative meanings for metaphors that typically express disappointment, bereavement, loneliness, and homesickness. Her early poems become scaffolds for the later poems, with the topography of the early years showing little resemblance to that of the final ones. (1) An examination of the early Gondal poems, the middle poems written mainly while she was a governess, and the late poems written back home in the Haworth parsonage demonstrates this progression.

Most of the Gondal poems were written between 1836 and 1840, in Haworth. Ada Harrison and Derek Stanford have called these the "imaginary" poems because they are by a woman who has not yet been bruised by hard experience (172). They are also the imaginary poems because they are infected by Emily's "torrid" Byronic heroes (Harrison and Stanford 175). It is especially illuminating to think of them, however, as the inauthentic poems since they are so heavily influenced by Emily. But even in these imitative, fledgling poems, Bronte asserts her own views of life that do not share Emily's themes of revenge, rebellion, and scorn.

In " A Voice from the Dungeon," the prisoner, Marina Sabia, speaks in a resigned voice:

I'm buried now; I've done with life;
I've done with hate, revenge and strife;
I've done with joy, and hope and love
And all the bustling world above.

Long have I dwelt forgotten here
In pining woe and dull despair;
This place of solitude and gloom
Must be my dungeon and my tomb. (3: 1-9)

The dungeon and the tomb are virtually the same since to be imprisoned and forgotten is a living death. Near the poem's end, Marina Sabia utters "one long piercing shriek," which rouses her from her one consoling dream of child and lover:

I looked around in wild despair,
I called them, but they were not there;
The father and the child are gone,
And I must live and die alone. (3: 51-54)

After this melodramatic episode the poem returns to its resigned misery. "A Voice from the Dungeon" is a highly derivative poem and has even been mistaken for Emily's work (Bronte 167). Bronte's heroines are not usually given to making piercing shrieks, but the joy that the dreaming Marina Sabia feels in being reunited with her darling child is purely Anne Bronte. Neither Charlotte nor Emily seems particularly interested in children and neither expresses the yearning for a child that their sister voices.

"The Captive's Dream" is similar to "A Voice from the Dungeon" in that an imprisoned woman, Alexandrina Zenobia, who lies wasting in a dungeon, dreams of her lover. The Byronic influence is clear in his description: "his hollow wandering eyes," "his marble brow.' And as Alexandrina Zenobia tries to reach him:

I struggled wildly but it was in vain,
I could not rise from my dark dungeon floor,
And the dear name I vainly strove to speak,
Died in a voiceless whisper on my tongue, .... (2)
(4; 18-21)

Bronte transfers the emphasis from Alexandrina' s suffering to her concern for the man who "bleeds and breaks" for her. She could stoically bear her imprisonment if only it did not bring suffering upon her beloved. Bronte's personality emerges in these lines, in her disquiet over another's grief, even when she speaks in the voices of stock characters and locates them in the Gothic settings of earlier Romantic poetry. (3)

Both of these poems were written before Anne Bronte assumed her first position as governess in April 1840. Then the imaginary world of Gondal became largely silent and Bronte's experiences as a paid employee in a busy household began to supply the material for her verses. It was also at this time that an attentive man, her father's curate, William Weightman, entered her life. His death, at the age of twenty-eight, in 1842 almost certainly inspired Anne's lines on a dead lover. Her work as a governess ended in 1845 and her brief career as a published writer began.

The poem, "The Captive Dove," clearly represents a woman yearning for freedom. A bird in a cage is a common image of a trapped individual, a yearning soul, or a woman with limited opportunities. The caged bird is also a particularly appropriate metaphor for the Victorian governess, since a governess is an educated lady who is required to work, trapped essentially, within the homes of other people. The employment of a governess acts as a testimony to the economic power of the Victorian middle-class father and an indication of his wife's leisure and ornamental status (Peterson 5); it is also living proof that the woman's own family and home have failed her. A governess lives in exile from her own family, yet resides outside the circle of her employer's family and apart from the lower world of the household servants.

In "The Captive Dove" Anne Bronte evokes the image of the gentle bird with its haunting call. The scene is so heartbreaking that it has the power to turn the speaker from her own loneliness:

Poor restless Dove, I pity thee,
And when I hear thy plaintive moan
I'll mourn for thy captivity
And in thy woes forget mine own. (24: 1-4)

In vain! In vain! Thou canst not rise--
Thy prison roof confines thee there;
Its slender wires delude thine eyes,
And quench thy longing with despair. (24: 9-12)

A prison no longer has to have heavy stone walls or to be a cold, damp dungeon since invisible wires serve to confine the prisoner. Although the image is more subtle, the airy cage still represents incarceration. But Bronte does not have escape in mind:

Yet hadst thou one gentle mate
Thy little drooping heart to cheer
And share with thee thy captive state,
Thou couldst be happy even there.
(24: 17-20)

It is not the captivity that is so hard to bear; it is the loneliness and neglect. Bronte recognizes that relationship is crucial to her emotional health; to be condemned to live without a soul mate is almost unbearable (Gilligan 8). William Weightman's early death prevents him from ever rescuing her from her captive state, but his very real spiritual presence in her mind inspires new metaphors of separation and loneliness.

In the first two stanzas of "Yes Thou Art Gone," Anne Bronte describes the physicality of her lover's tomb:

Yes, thou art gone and never more
Thy sunny smile shall gladden me;
But I may pass the old church door
And pace the floor that covers thee;

May stand upon the cold damp stone
And think that frozen lies below
The lightest heart that I have known,
The kindest I shall ever know. (31: 1-8)

Placing the burial under the church floor strongly identifies with Weightman's tomb in Haworth's village church. He is doubly entombed: frozen below the floor and shut up within the building itself, and he is doubly dead: lifeless as well as frozen. The speaker's pacing movements further emphasize the narrow, captive space. The poem's mood however is not bleak; it concludes by reflecting on the sweetness of the lover's transient existence and its lasting impression upon the poet.

"Mirth and Mourning," and its companion poem, originally published as "Weep Not Too Much, My Darling," are some of the last of the Gondal poetry. Written a year after Bronte's return to Haworth, and at a time that it appears Emily had stopped writing poetry, this pair of verses demonstrates that the themes of Gondal are merging with the themes of Bronte's experiential verses, and that Gondal's dungeons no longer serve to contain her thoughts. In the first poem Zerona argues with another speaker who implores her to cast away her sorrow. But Zerona cannot be joyful when her lover is still imprisoned:

For, in the brightest noontide glow,
The dungeon's light is dim;
Though freshest winds around us blow,
No breath can visit him. (50: 17-20)

This poem may be an internal dialogue that takes place in the mind of Zerona. A mental duel such as this is consistent with Bronte's increasing use of dialogue and rational argument as a way to refine ideas and present satisfactory conclusions. The technique reaches its maturity in her last poems.

Striking similarities exist in the description of Zerona' s prisoner-lover to the dead lover of Bronte's bereavement poems. The lines, "What waste of youth, what hopes destroyed," and "If he must sit in twilight gloom" could easily refer to Weightman. In the answering poem, the imprisoned lover responds, begging Zerona to enjoy nature for his sake:

When through the prison grating
The holy moonbeams shine,
And I am wildly longing
To see the orb divine
Not crossed, deformed, and sullied
By those relentless bars
That will not show the crescent moon,
And scarce the twinkling stars.

It is my only comfort
To think, that unto thee
The sight is not forbidden--
The face of heaven is free.... (51 : 17-28)

The anguished lament raised by the first poem is not left unchallenged. Bronte does not realize her purpose until she provides a convincing counter-argument that offers comfort in a seemingly hopeless situation.

In "Severed and Gone," Bronte is still reconciling herself to a lost love. Again, she unflinchingly surveys death's abode:

I know that in the narrow tomb
The form I loved was buried deep,
And left, in silence and in gloom,
To slumber out its dreamless sleep.

I know the corner, where it lies,
Is but a dreary place of rest:
The charnel moisture never dries
From the dark flagstones o'er its breast. (55:5-12)

Bronte does not dwell upon the corrupting body. Instead, within her silent bedchamber she prays that Heaven will grant her a vision of her loved one, glorious in the afterlife. Bronte craves a visit from such a spiritual visitor, for as long as she can remember him she can keep his memory fresh. She firmly believes the earthly tomb can be transcended and replaced by "the more distant residence of the spirit" (Harrison and Stanford 186). Bronte is increasingly understanding herself to be the one in exile, far from her eternal home of Heaven.

Four poems survive from the late summer of 1847 until shortly before Bronte's death in May 1849. These are her most authentic poems and although though they contain some conventional didactic elements, to dismiss them as such is to miss their individuality; for Anne Bronte's s didacticism is not commonplace, but is "of a passionate kind" (Ewbank 52), and the pupil she is most concerned with examining is herself. She is rarely adamant; her religion is "a quest, a patient sifting and internal discussion" (Chitham "Religion" 133). An examination of the extensive revisions and word listings on Bronte's manuscripts reveals that she sifts not only religious ideas but words in her efforts to achieve a clearer and simpler vocabulary. Her choice of hymn and ballad forms also allows the most musical of the Bronte clan comfortable boundaries within which to create. These are contours that many writers before her have used, providing comfortable familiarity in their economical rhymes and traditional rhythms (Scott 61).

"Self-Communion" is her longest poem--a dialogue between the poet and an immortal speaker, perhaps Wisdom or Reason. It is a poem so autobiographical in nature that Edward Chitham has placed it among primary sources for understanding Anne Bronte's personality (Bronte 3). The questioner asks the poet to look back on her life and search her memory, a step that will provide her with the guidance she seeks. Bronte insists that even as a child she strove "to find the narrow way" but her childish prayers and artless cries were scorned by those around her. In time, the child (it) grew wiser than her teachers in seeking the path to Heaven:

It asked for light, and it is heard;
God grants that struggling soul repose;
And, guided by his holy word,
It wiser than its teachers grows.
It gains the upward path at length,
And passes on from strength to strength....
                         (57: 115-120)

One of Bronte's chief fears is that her experiences and reflections are chilling and hardening her heart. She laments the loss of an early friendship, someone who was her "sun by day and moon by night." Critics widely believe that Bronte is referring to an increasing estrangement from Emily, whose early literary partnership had brought her so much delight. (4) Emily's scorn of her sister's crystallizing religious faith becomes a source of deep anguish for Anne Bronte: the poet chooses to hide her concerns and discoveries from those closest to her, further constricting the shell of silence that she inhabits. In "Self-Communion," the first speaker (echoing Bronte's own conscience) assures her:

Could I but hear my Saviour say,--
"I know thy patience and thy love;
How thou has held the narrow way,
For my sake laboured night and day,
And watched, and striven with them that strove;
And still hast borne, and didst not faint,"--
Oh, this would be reward indeed! (57: 326-332)

The second of the two poems that Bronte saw published during her lifetime is entitled, significantly, "The Narrow Way." (5) Using archetypal images of the Christian pilgrim (Duthie 85), it is a rousing foursquare evangelical hymn filled with admonishments, encouragement, and assurances of God's rewards:

Believe not those who say
The upward path is smooth,
Lest thou shouldst stumble in the way
And faint before the truth.

It is the only road
Unto the realms of joy;
But he who seeks that blest abode
Must all his powers employ. (58: 1-8)

The 'narrow way' has now evolved into a major theme in Anne Bronte's last poems, and she is no longer interested in exhuming its Romantic ancestors, damp dungeons or silent tombs, to express it. These metaphors have merged with a well-known phrase in Christian theology, the "straight and narrow" path. (6) Anne Bronte's belief in the end is that life indeed is filled with sorrow and loneliness. And when even her dearly loved home is no longer a place of refuge, with Emily alienated, Charlotte pursuing her own ambitious goals, and Branwell wallowing in self-abuse and defeat, she can still envision a path that will lead her to her final destination of Heavenly reward and reunion with loved ones. She affirms a constricted life of disappointments and absent opportunities by transforming it into a pathway that if followed carefully and faithfully will lead to a reconciling God. That which was a language of failed expectations and estrangement now expresses a firm conviction that a life lived within narrow borders c an ultimately lead Home.

(1.) Teddi Lynn Chicester draws the opposite conclusion for Emily Bronte's poems.

(2.) Both Elizabeth Hollis Berry and Maria Frawley provide in-depth discussions of silence and voicelessness in Bronte's poems and novels.

(3.) The name Alexandrina Zenobia is notable. Emily has nothing to say about this Gondal character in her poems, although Charlotte includes a Zenobia in her juvenile writings. The historical Zenobia was the third century C.E. Queen of Palmyra who was captured and paraded through Rome in golden chains. It would have been typical of Bronte to derive her character from a real person rather than create her entirely as a fiction

(4.) See Mary Summer's article for an exploration of this issue.

(5.) Desmond Pacey reported in the Times Literary Supplement his discovery that this poem had appeared in the December 1848 issue of Fraser's Magazine; many works on Anne Bronte do not include this information.

(6.) "Because strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it" (Matt. 7: 13-14).

Works Cited

Berry, Elizabeth Hollis. Anne Bronte's Radical Vision: Structures of Consciousness. Victoria, BC: U Victoria, 1994.

Bronte, Anne. The Poems of Anne Bronte: A New Text and Commentary. Ed. Edward Chitham. London: Macmillan, 1979.

Chichester, Teddi Lynn. "Evading 'Earth's Dungeon's Tomb': Emily Bronte A.G.A., and the Fatally Feminine." Victorian Poetry 29 (1991): 1-15.

Chitham, Edward. A Life of Anne Bronte. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.

______. "Religion, Nature and Art in the Work of Anne Bronte," Bronte Society Transactions, 24 (1999): 129-145.

de Ford, Miriam A. "Bronte, Anne." British Authors of the Nineteenth Century. Ed. Stanley J. Kunitz. New York: Wilson, 1936. 73-74.

Duthie, Enid L. The Bronte's and Nature. New York: St. Martin's, 1986.

Ewbank, Inga-Stina. Their Proper Sphere: A Study of the Bronte Sisters as Early-Victorian Female Novelists. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1966.

Fawley, Maria H. Anne Bronte. New York: Twayne, 1996.

Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale UP, 1979.

Gaskell, Elizabeth. The Life of Charlotte Bronte. London: Smith, Elder, 1900.

Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1982.

Harrison, Ada, and Derek Stanford. Anne Bronte: Her Life and Work. London: Methuen, 1959.

Pacey, Desmond. "'The Narrow Way'." Times Literary Supplement 18 Aug 1966: 743.

Peterson, M. J.. "The Victorian Governess: Status Incongruence in Family and Society." Suffer and Be Still: Women in the Victorian Age. Ed. Martha Vicinus. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1973. 3-19.

Scott, P. J. M. Anne Bronte: A New Critical Assessment. London: Vision, 1983.

Summer, Mary. "Anne Bronte's Religion: First Signs of Breakdown in Relations with Emily." Bronte Society Transactions, 25 (2000): 18-30.