"Doing the Pan": the African-American experience at the Pan-American Exposition, 1901.

On the afternoon of November 11, 1900, members of the Buffalo, New York Phyllis Wheatley Club and their supporters gathered in the Michigan Street Baptist Church. The next day, Buffalo newspapers described the meeting under the following headlines:

       "Buffalo Negroes think their Race Should Be Recognized at the
       Pan-American Exposition." (Commercial, November 12, 1900).
       "Negro Exhibit at Pan-American: Colored People of Buffalo are
       Aroused in the Matter." (Buffalo Evening Times, November 12,
       1900).

The Phyllis Wheatley Club meeting received national attention when the Cleveland Gazette, an Afro-American publication, printed a column entitled "Pan American Exposition Color Line". An excerpt from that article summarized the nature of the Buffalo Club's complaint. "Thus far not a single representative of the race has been properly placed by the management of the Pan-American Exposition, either as director, superintendent of a department, honorary vice-president or even clerk in any of the departments. Our people here are indignant at this discrimination and held a meeting November 11th in one of our churches under the auspices of the Phyllis Wheatley Club, composed exclusively of women." (1)

According to all accounts of the rally, it was a "well attended and enthusiastic meeting" of over two hundred people. As reported in the Gazette and the local newspapers, the meeting organizer's purpose was two fold: to advocate for the installation of the "Negro Exhibit" at the Pan American Exposition and to protest the exclusion of Blacks from representation on the Exposition's leadership bodies.

Mary B. Talbert, the Club's corresponding secretary, a future president of the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs and a founder of the Niagara Movement, forerunner of the NAACP, was a featured speaker. Mrs. Talbert's essay, "Why the Afro-American Should be Represented in the Pan American Exposition" was a pointed message to Exposition officials. Copies of the paper have been lost, but the newspaper accounts provide us a glimpse of Mrs. Talbert's remarks. She extolled the importance of the "Negro Exhibit," then on display at the Paris Exposition, and chided the Exposition commissioners for their failure to ensure its placement in Buffalo. She also called on these officials to appoint a Black commissioner to represent the interests of the colored people of the community. (2)

In addition to Mrs. Talbert another speaker, James A. Ross, described as a "well-known colored politician" accused the officials of prejudice in not appointing an Afro-American commissioner. Mrs. A.D. Wilson, President of the Central Union of the Women's Christian Temperance Union also expressed her support for the group and its cause. The meeting concluded with the passage of several resolutions "... to the effect that immediate steps should be taken to inform the exposition officials of the desire of the colored people for a Negro exhibit and declaring that the Negroes of Buffalo were unanimous in demanding that a colored commissioner be appointed." (3) There was consensus that Mrs. Talbert had the excellent credentials to make her a strong candidate for the commissioner post.

At the turn of the century Buffalo's Black community numbered 1,698 residents in a city population of 352,287. (4) Although small in number, the community had a long history of civic and political activism. Organized in 1899, the Phyllis Wheatley Club was a fledging organization that demonstrated tremendous influence, even at this early stage in its development. Within two years of it's founding, the Club's membership had grown to more than 300. As an affiliate of the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACW), the organization had dedicated itself to reaching back to help those less fortunate and less able, in accordance with its motto, "Lifting As We Climb." Under the leadership of its president, Mrs. Susan C. Evans, vice-president, Mrs. John H. Dover and Mrs. Mary B. Talbert, the group established an Old Folks Home and programs to feed the hungry, donated books by Black authors to school libraries, and organized "mother's clubs" to teacher proper parenting. (5)

The protest rally was a bold move on the part of these clubwomen, but their actions were not without precedence. These women knew about the economic and socio-political importance of world's fairs and expositions. They understood the potential benefits of the Exposition for their community. The fair offered a platform that Blacks could use to gain visibility and to inform and educate white Americans about the strides made by members of the race since Emancipation. Further, it was an opportunity for Black Americans to share in the economic bounty derived from commercial endeavors associated with the Exposition.

Just seven years before the Phyllis Wheatley Club's protest, Black women and men created an uproar at the Chicago World's Columbian Fair by their vociferous challenges of the exposition's policies of exclusion. Many of the women who advocated for an African American voice in the decision-making bodies of the fair were future leaders and members of the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs. In fact, one of these women, Ida B. Wells along with Frederick Douglass and others mounted an advocacy campaign that resulted in the publication entitled, "The Reason Why the Colored American is not in the World's Columbian Exposition." Simply stated, Wells cited racism and discrimination as being at the core of the problem.

No doubt, Mary B. Talbert had Wells' publication in mind when she wrote the essay she delivered at the Buffalo protest meeting. And the Phyllis Wheatley Club, a NACW affiliate, was continuing the pattern of protests that began in Chicago and repeated at other fairs and expositions preceding and following the Pan-American Exposition.

Although the reports of the November 11th meeting is the first significant coverage of efforts by Blacks to gain inclusion in the Pan-American, there is some evidence that the rally probably resulted from the frustration of having earlier attempts ignored by Exposition officials. As early as December 1899 African Americans had voiced a desire to be represented at the Pan Am. A brief reference that supports this statement can be found in the Pan American Magazine. According to the author "Three classes of citizens are seeking especial recognition at the Pan American Exposition, the colored race, the workingmen and the clergy. All of them are entitled to the highest respect and the Exposition management will doubtless deal with each of them in a liberal spirit." (6)

During the year following this entry, one can surmise that Blacks advocated for representation with the "Exposition management" on more than one occasion. Although no documentation has been found, at this time, to confirm the actions taken by the fair's management to accord "especial recognition" to the colored citizens, we can draw three conclusions: one) the exposition officials made no response to the requests of Blacks or two) The response was unsatisfactory or three) the appointment of a Black man, Gaius C. Bolin, as a member of the New York State Board of General Managers for the New York State Building in April 1899 (7) was considered sufficient representation for Afro-Americans.

After the Phyllis Wheatley Club protest meeting, however, the exposition officials apparently got the message that Blacks planned to be involved in the Pan American. The Courier reported on November 13, 1900 that "the Phyllis Club of colored women of this city has begun active preparations for a Pan American exhibit which will be devoted entirely to the colored race. They will confer with the Pan American officials in regard to such an exhibit." (8)

Further, within six weeks of the protest rally, the press reported a visit to the city by Thomas J. Calloway. Identified as a "special agent of the United States commission to the Paris Exposition.", Calloway had come to Buffalo to propose that the Negro Exhibit be installed at the Pan American. (8) The Exhibit was described as an award-winning display that had received international attention, and an appropriation of $15,000 from the U.S. Congress for its creation. Mr. Calloway was quoted in the Times as saying he'd come to Buffalo "to present the management of the Pan American Exposition the proposition of utilizing and installing the Negro exhibit shown at Paris ..." (9)

Calloway stressed the educational and motivational objectives of the exhibit. However, he did not miss the opportunity to point out the possible use of the exhibit to increase revenue at the exposition. He said, "There are two reasons why this exhibit ought to be emphasized here. One is that it will serve as an encouragement to the colored people throughout the country, thousands of whom would come and pay admission to the exposition to see it." (10) He explained that the second reason was to demonstrate to whites how money that they'd given to educate the freedman had been well spent.

Several weeks after Calloway's visit, Dr. Selim H. Peabody, director of the Liberal Arts division of the exposition, stated in an interview that the Negro Exhibit from the Paris Exposition "..... will be transferred to the Pan-American Exposition and here is an item of news for you--it has been decided to place it under the supervision of some person, not yet designated by the Exposition company of the Negro race." (11)

Ultimately, the Phyllis Wheatley Club and their supporters were successful in bringing the Negro Exhibit to the Pan Am. An announcement of the exhibit's arrival appeared in the Courier on May 11, 1901. ".. the exhibit showing the development of the Negro race since the date of Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln, will be shown here as it was in Paris." (12) The Exhibit was housed in the Manufacturers and Liberal Arts Building, where it may have received little attention.

In fact for many years there was speculation that the Phyllis Wheatley Club's efforts were fruitless and that the Exhibit was not displayed at the Pan Am. The discovery of the exhibit's pamphlet was celebrated in the recent release, by the Buffalo and Erie County Public Library, of the publication "The Forgotten 'Negro Exhibit"'. This booklet traces the history of the Exhibit and recounts the involvement of members of the Black community in securing this important display for the Pan American.

James A. Ross, Esq., that "well-known colored politician" from the protest meeting emerged as a prominent figure with the Negro Exhibit as well as other ventures related to the Exposition. While Peabody did not name the individual of the "Negro race" who would be designated to supervise the exhibit, there is overwhelming evidence that Mr. Ross was that individual. In addition to his political activities, Ross was the editor and publisher of the Globe and Freeman, a magazine for Pullman porters and waiters.

The Negro Exhibit's souvenir pamphlet bears his photo on the cover, along with the pastor of the Michigan Street Baptist Church, Rev. J. Edward Nash and a notation that the publication is provided "compliments of the Globe and Freeman". Further, there is a "Dedicatory" preface in the pamphlet that is signed by "Jas. A. Ross, assistant, in charge Negro Exhibit, Pan-American Exposition." (13)

This writer also found a contemporary newspaper article that adds weight to the belief that James Ross was in charge of the Negro Exhibit. It appears that Mr. Ross, a member of the Order of the Masons, was instrumental in bringing that group to Buffalo for its annual convention during the Exposition. As the Sovereign Grand Inspector General, thirty-third Degree, Ross was an influential member of this organization. The United Supreme Council of the Ancient Arabic Order Scottish Rite Masons held their convention from August 1-6, 1901. The local press carried several articles on the activities of the masons, and in one noted, "The council members will visit the Exposition and Niagara Falls. Sovereign Grand Inspector Ross is in charge of the Negro educational exhibit at the exposition, and there the colored Masons will have much to interest them." (14)

Finally, there is additional evidence to believe that Mr. Ross was the manager of the Negro Exhibit. Mr. Ross published the Gazetteer and Guide, a magazine that succeeded the Globe and Freeman, beginning in November 1901. (15) Editions of this publication were heavily subscribed, with more than half of the space of the magazine devoted to advertisement from businesses in Canada and the United States. Coincidentally, the Negro Exhibit Souvenir Pamphlet had numerous advertisements. It would certainly appear that Mr. Ross had his stamp on this publication. The probability of his involvement increases with the added knowledge that the Negro Exhibit Souvenir booklet is the only Pan American Exposition pamphlet to contain any advertisements. (16)

The efforts of the Phyllis Wheatley Club, James Ross and others to be full participants in the Pan American Exposition did not stop with the acquisition of the Negro Exhibit. Buffalo's Blacks were aware of the economic gains to be had from the Fair. A search of the ledger books in which the sale of Pan American Exposition stock is recorded, turned up the names of several Black citizens. Albert M. Thomas, an attorney and appointee of the Bureau of Information, purchased twenty shares of stock. Nelson Fairbush and Mrs. Ida Fairbush purchased ten shares each. (17) At ten dollars a share, this was no small investment for Blacks at that time. It is highly likely that other Black citizens also invested in the Exposition and research continues to identify them.

African Americans also wanted the Exposition and city officials to understand that their community could be instrumental in attracting other Afro Americans and their dollars to the Rainbow city. Again, the name of James A. Ross is prominently featured in these activities. As early as June 1900, Mr. Ross was involved in a plan with other Negro businessmen to capitalize on the anticipated need for housing for Exposition visitors. Ross and others formed a company to establish a hotel for Negroes. According to an article in the Buffalo Express, "the Pan American Exposition is expected to furnish a large amount of fairgoers, but it is the intention to make the hotel a permanent institution and not one merely to last during the exposition." (18) Described as "editor of the Globe", Ross was named as the secretary and treasurer of the new company. Other principals of the company included, D. A. Butler, a janitor at the Marine Bank who was president of the Hotel Company and H.F. Hamilton of the Buffalo Electric Company, who was named as the hotel manger. The hotel, proposed as the "Wormley Hotel", was slated to open for guests by the fall of 1900. However, it appears that the plans were never achieved, as there is no record of a Wormley Hotel in Buffalo. (19)

The issue of housing for colored visitors to the fair was taken up by another group, which demonstrates the success of the advocacy efforts of Black Buffalonians. In April 1901, W.D. Thayer, Superintendent of the Bureau of Information wrote the Indianapolis Freeman, a widely circulated Afro American publication. Thayer stated that the letter was prompted by information received ".... from many sources that the colored people were to be well represented during this summer in attendance at our Exposition ..." (20) It is obvious that these sources were most likely local African Americans. In an article for the Colored American Magazine, James Ross predicted that thousands of Afro-Americans would visit the exposition, a guarantee, he said, resulting from ".... the interest that is manifested by the race in holding conventions in Buffalo ..." (21)

The Thayer letter continued, "After consulting with a number of representative colored citizens of Buffalo, we learned that the colored people throughout the country felt that this city was not very hospitable toward them." Thayer announced the appointment of Mr. A.M. Thomas, "a colored lawyer, to look after the interest of the colored visitors of this city." The letter makes it clear that Mr. Thomas' appointment was made upon the recommendation of the "representatives of the colored people." In fact the notice of Thomas' appointment appeared in the Buffalo Times on April 7, 1901. The brief article stated, "the Negroes of this city will be interested in the announcement of the appointment of Albert M. Jones (sic) to be a member of the Bureau of Information and it is requested that those among them who expect to open their homes during the exposition for the reception of members of their race make the fact know to him." (22)

Thayer concluded his letter with a request that the Freeman convey to its readers that black travelers would not only find "suitable accommodations", but also receive "courteous and respectful treatment" during their visit to the Exposition. Finally, Thayer implored the Freeman to print the letter so that colored people would know that "the Exposition does not purpose to slight in any manner this portion of our country men and visiting strangers." The Ross article also announced that various Afro-American clubs in the city were planning to entertain visitors. He suggested that the Citizen's Committee be contacted for "literature and particulars of any description pertaining to the Pan-American or accommodations during the Exposition free of charge by applying to Secretary of Colored Citizen Committee at the above address." (23) Of course, Mr. Ross was the Committee's secretary.

The Committee of Comfort, as it came to be called, was appointed by the Exposition's Bureau of Information. The Committee's membership was comprised of Mary B. Talbert, Rev. J.C. Ayler, James A. Ross, A.M. Thomas and others. The group was given the charge "to make themselves active as a sort of lookout committee for colored people who propose to visit the Pan American Exposition and to provide comfort to the same." (24) The Committee apparently helped to identify individuals in the community who were willing to open their homes to visitors. The Freeman printed a notice in its July 13th edition that listed the names and addresses of the members of the Committee of Public Comfort advising perspective exposition visitors "to communicate with any of the ... members .... for assignment to suitable places". (25)

The need for "suitable" housing for African American visitors is underscored by the fact that three national conventions were held in the city during the course of the exposition. In addition to the previously cited Colored Masons, the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs and the National Labor Federation (colored) scheduled conventions in Buffalo on July 7-11 and August 6th respectively. As for the latter, no additional information has been found, to date, about this convention. The convention of the NACW, however, received major coverage by the media of the day.

In 1901, the NACW, Inc. met in Buffalo for its Third Biennial meeting at the invitation of the Phyllis Wheatley Club. The group met at the Women's Educational & Industrial Union Building on Delaware Avenue. It was reported that over three hundred fifty delegates attended. Many of the leading African American women of the day, including Mary Church Terrell, NACW President, Mrs. Booker T. Washington, Mrs. Rosetta Douglass Sprague, daughter of Frederick Douglass, and Mrs. B.K. Bruce, widow of Senator B.K. Bruce, registrar of the U.S. Treasury, attended the convention.

Organized in 1896, the NACW had dedicated itself, and its member organizations, to fulfilling its motto, "Lifting as we climb." True to their agenda of self-help and advancement of the race, the delegates were admonished to attend to the business of the meeting and to leave the attractions until the close of conference. Accordingly it was reported that "the delegates, so strongly interested in the serious side of the gathering that they have planned no time to be taken off even for a visit to the exposition ... delegates urged to stay away from the fair until after final adjournment ..." (26)

The sessions included reports, papers and discussions on such topics as: temperance, kindergarten education, literature by black authors, proper parenting, and the condition of the black woman. Mary Church Terrell delivered a speech in which she over-viewed the work of the organization since its inception, laid out the work still to be done and called on white women to support black women in their endeavors. (27)

Mrs. Terrell did not confine her presentations to the convention audiences. Earlier in the week, prior to the start of the convention, she spoke at a special meeting of the Phyllis Wheatley Club held at the Michigan Street Baptist Church. According to the newspaper account, she gave an interesting address in "which she spoke of the work being done by the organizations of Negro women throughout the United States." (28)

Mary B. Talbert delivered a paper during one of the convention sessions entitled "Reasons for placing correct literature before our children". In her remarks, Mrs. Talbert said, "Because children make companions of their books, live in them, act in them and make them their ideals, we should pay strict attention to the models of their heroes. Those books are good which have stood the test of time. Standard literature is good literature." (29)

The delegates also reported on the work of their individual affiliates. An interesting fact that arises from the newspaper reports is that in addition to the Phyllis Wheatley Club, there were two other local NACW affiliates: the Women's Loyal Union and the Amity Club. Little is known about these organizations. The Phyllis Wheatley Club, on the other hand, survived well into the 1970s. Election of new officers was also on the conference agenda. The group elected Mrs. Josephine Silone Yates as its second president. Fifteen years later, Mary Burnett Talbert would be elected sixth president in 1916.

The delegates at the 1901 meeting were not all about work, however. At the opening session, several distinguished Buffalo citizens, including acting Mayor Kennedy, personally welcomed them to the city. Following, the Phyllis Wheatley Club and the Amity Club organized a gala opening reception at Lyric Hall that concluded at 10 P.M. The delegates were also treated to a visit from the man who was described as "the leader among the colored citizens of the United States": Booker T. Washington. The reporter also characterized Washington as "... an example to them (Blacks) and many of them are filled with earnest endeavor to attain to his standard." (30)

During his visit to Buffalo in 1901, Washington visited the NACW meeting, delivered a speech to the 20th Century Club and toured the Pan American Exposition before traveling to Washington, D.C. The Commercial article noted, "it was to be expected that so progressive a man as Mr. Washington has proved himself to be would make an early opportunity to visit the Pan American Exposition." (31)

Black residents also celebrated visits to the city and the exposition by other out of town dignitaries. The Progressive Club, described as an organization of "representative Negroes in Buffalo", planned and hosted a party for over one hundred visitors. The club's reception was followed by a luncheon and dance. The guests included visitors from the West Indies, New York City, Niagara Falls, Memphis, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, and Windsor, Ontario, for example. Members of the Progressive Club's organizing committee included local residents, Nelson Fairbush, Homer Bow, Clara Paine (sic), Maud Davis and Mabel Leggett. (32)

Five Cuban musicians, who were members of the Cuban Band at the Exposition, were among the guests attending the party. The partygoers were given different colored ribbons to identify the area of the country that each represented. Those who were from the South wore blue ribbons; Easterners wore blue and white, Northerners had red and white, and Westerners were given red, white and blue ribbons. Those from foreign countries wore the flags of their country. (33) Following the affair, the Express reported that the party was "one of the most notable Negro social functions ever held in the city." (34)

Black citizens were also involved in one of the most significant events to occur at the Pan American Exposition: the assassination of President William McKinley. When McKinley was shot on September 6, 1901, Blacks reacted with the same horror and sadness as other Americans. But they also had reason to feel pride in one of their own. James B. Parker who was in line to shake hands with the President at the Temple of Music, was the first to grab Leon Czolgosz, the assassin. Parker claimed that he prevented the firing of a third shot at McKinley.

Parker, a waiter in one of the Midway restaurants, was immediately hailed as a hero. According to Daryl Rasuli, Parker was "besieged by souvenir hunters" who wanted to buy buttons and other pieces of his garments soon after the incident. (35) Parker was even inducted into the all white fraternal organization, the Don't Knock Society. (36) Yet Parker's veracity quickly came under fire. He was never called to testify at Czolgosz' trial and testimony by a well-known Buffalo attorney, James Quakenbush, added further doubt to Parker's story. Quakenbush claimed that he was an eyewitness to the shooting and did not see James Parker subdue the assassin. He accused Parker of making false claims.

Blacks were incensed by the attempt to discredit Parker. On September 27th a protest meeting was held at the Vine Street African Methodist Church. A five-member committee was appointed to examine Parker's account of the story that very evening. During the committee's private discussion, Parker arrived at the church, but according to reports refused to publicly address the crowd. Following their deliberations, the committee issued a resolution that stated that the colored citizens regretted the "clash of statements" regarding Parker's role in foiling the gunmen's attempt to fire a third time, but believed that the evidence supported Parker's version of the events. (37)

Parker was not from Buffalo. In fact, he had only recently arrived and his stint as a waiter was a temporary job. He was scheduled to start a new job, in November 1901, as a "traveling agent" for the Gazetteer and Guide. (38) Once again, James Ross enters the picture, this time as a staunch supporter of James Parker. He wrote a letter to the Editor of the Buffalo Express, dated September 26th to decry the attacks on Parker's credibility.

Ross said that he and Parker's attorney, Mr. Thomas, had contacted the District Attorney, "the Honorable Mr. Penney" and expressed concern that Parker was not called as a witness. The letter states, "I also stated to Parker when his claim was disputed that I thought he should make an affidavit as to the correctness of his statement, but others stated this was unnecessary. I then insisted that it should be done and if it was proven that it was incorrect there should be but one alternative and that was to go over the Niagara Falls." (39) Mr. Ross, it seems, also had a sense of humor.

In further defense of Parker, Ross quoted a news article from the Brockton Times, Brockton, Massachusetts. It provided an eyewitness statement that confirmed Parker should receive credit for being "the first man to land on the assassin." Ross concluded his letter by stating that "others concurring with this statement can be shown from those who are disinterested parties." (40)

A retraction of support for Parker was printed by one newspaper. Under the banner, "The Case of J.B. Parker", the paper blamed its failure to check and confirm its sources, and the testimony of James Quakenbush, as leading to the reversal of its support for Parker. The paper admonished Black citizens to drop the issue as it was not one of "race prejudice, but of the simple facts in the premises. These facts are of record and Mr. Parker and his well-meaning friends are invited to inspect and calmly consider them before they utter rash accusations.....". (41)

With his claims thoroughly dismissed, it seems that James Parker faded out of history as quickly as he was thrust into it. Nothing else has been found regarding his activities or residence following the meeting at the Vine Street Church. Daryl Rasuli is continuing to research the story of James B. Parker and future information about this African American "hero" will hopefully be found.

A final note on another African American whose biography begs to be written: James A. Ross. Ross' article in the Colored American Magazine offers an example of his persistent promotion of the Exposition and reveals him as an astute politician. Ross praised the virtues of Buffalo as the site for the Exposition and commended Governor Theodore Roosevelt for "placing a member of the Afro American race on the State Board of Control of the Pam Am State Building." He also complimented W.I. Buchanan, Director General of the Exposition and Dr. Selim Peabody and recognized them as friends of the Afro American race. His one reference to the Negro Exhibit proclaimed, "the feature that will precede all others, from a recent standpoint, will be the Negro Exhibit which was seen at the Paris Exposition, under the directorate of Professor T.J. Calloway. Much could be said concerning this exhibit, but it must be seen to be appreciated." (42) Ross received an Honorable Mention Award from the Exposition for this article.

At the turn of the 20th Century, the United States was on the cusp of a new era. The nation had stepped into a brand new age, still riding high on the euphoria of its victory in the Spanish American War. The United States had assumed the mantel of an international world power, and the country was experiencing the benefits of monumental advances in technology, science, manufacturing and industry. Furthermore, American culture reveled in the recognition by other world cultures, of its literary and artistic accomplishments.

At the turn of the century, Buffalo, New York with over 352,000 residents was the 8th largest city in the nation, the first to use electricity to light its streets and the largest railroad hub in the country. The city basked in the glow of the national exhilaration and the anticipation of prosperity associated with the new epoch. If there was ever a time for America to "strut her stuff" before the world, this was the time, and Buffalo, New York was the place. Promoters of the Pan-American Exposition envisioned the fair as the perfect vehicle to showcase "the marvelous developments of the Western Hemisphere ... by a display of the arts, industries, manufactures, and the products of sail, mines and sea." (43)

At the turn of the century, African Americans confronted a different reality, however. Thirty-five years had passed since the Emancipation Proclamation, yet Blacks still experienced the injustices and disparities created by the slave system. While discrimination in the North was subtler, the passage of Jim Crow laws and policies institutionalized a new form of slavery in the south. Against this backdrop, we can develop a better understanding of and appreciation for the activities of the Phyllis Wheatley Club, the Progressive Club and individuals like James A. Ross, Mary B. Talbert, Albert Thomas, Rev. J. Edward Nash and the many others who adamantly refused to allow the Darkest Africa and Old Plantation Exhibits to stand as representative of their accomplishments and achievements. The activities of Buffalo's Black community are only now beginning to be extensively documented. One hundred years after the exposition, we are learning how they effectively utilized The Pan- American Exposition as a platform to display their own accomplishments in "arts, industries, manufactures and the products of the sail, mines and sea".

(1) "Pan American Exposition Color line". Cleveland Gazette, vol. 18, no. 17, December 1, 1900.

(2) "Negro Exhibit at Pan-American: Colored People of Buffalo are aroused in the matter". Buffalo Evening Times, November 12, 1900.

(3) "Negro Exhibit: Buffalo Negroes think their race should be recognized at the Pan-American Exposition". The Commercial, November 12, 1900.

(4) Loos, William, Ami M. Savigny and Robert M. Gurn. The Forgotten 'Negro Exhibit': African American involvement in Buffalo's Pan-American Exposition, 1901. Buffalo, NY: Buffalo & Erie County Public Library and Library Foundation, 2001.

(5) "Only colored women are members of the Phyllis Wheatley Club". The Sunday Courier, Week ending March 3, 1901.

(6) Pan American Magazine, vol. 1, no. 7, p. 8.

(7) Loos et al., p. 8

(8) "Contracts for more buildings: Rhode Island commissioners report on the outlook for Pan Am and recommend a building." Courier, November 13, 1900.

(8) "Rhode Island. Manufacturers of the state want every inch of space possible at the Pan-American. Paris Negro Exhibit." the Commercial, December 24, 1900.

(9) "Negro Exhibit at exposition. Special agent Calloway's mission. Wants the Pan-American to take the Paris exhibit, and enlarge it." Times, December 24, 1900

(10) Ibid.

(11) "Liberal arts exhibit: Superintendent Peabody planning to overcome lack of space" (Interview with Dr. S.H. Peabody) Express, January 6, 1901.

(12) "Complete exhibit being prepared for Liberal Arts. Dr. S.H. Peabody expects everything to be installed and ready for Dedication day: best of the Paris exhibit has been sent on to Buffalo and is now nearly ready." Courier, May 11, 1901.

(13) Loos et al. The Forgotten 'Negro Exhibit: 'African American involvement in Buffalo's Pan-American Exposition, 1901.

(14) "Council of Colored Masons: annual meeting nobles of the mystic shrine opens first session in Buffalo today." Courier, August 1, 1901.

(15) Bullock, Penelope L. The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1981.

(16) Personal communication, William Loos, Curator Rare Books, Buffalo & Erie County Public Library, 2001.

(17) Pan American Exposition Ledgers, Buffalo & Erie County Historical Society.

(18) "Negro Hotel, a company has been formed to furnish an institution Buffalo is said to need." Express, June 19, 1900.

(19) Loos et al., p. 9.

(20) Ibid. p 9

(21) Ross, James A. "Buffalo and the Pan American Exposition." Colored American Magazine. Vol. 2, no. 5, March 1901, p. 327.

(22) Buffalo Times, April 7, 1901.

(23) Ross, James A., p. 328

(24) Loos et al., p. 9

(25) Ibid.

(26) "Colored women", Courier, July 11, 1901.

(27) "Bright Negro women: interesting convention at the women's union." Express, July 8, 1901.

(28) Ibid.

(29) "Convention continued: noted Negro women", Times, July 11, 1901.

(30) "Hotel gossip: Booker T. Washington is in Buffalo." Commercial, July 11, 1901.

(31) Ibid.

(32) "Visiting Negroes" the Commercial, August 27, 1901.

(33) "To entertain Negroes". Express, August 23, 1901.

(34) "Noted Negroes there: Progressive Club's reception successful affair." Express, August 27, 1901.

(35) Rasuli, Daryl. "James B. Parker Revisited" Western New York Heritage Magazine, Vol. 5, no. 1, Winter 2002, pp 22-23.

(36) "Parker is a Don't Knock: big Negro who acted quickly at shooting of President is a member" Courier, September ?, 1901.

(37) "Negroes laud Parker: ask history to give him credit they think is due." Express, September 27, 1901.

(38) Rasuli,, p 22

(39) "Parker's Claims" Letter to Editor Buffalo Express, September 26, 1901.

(40) Ibid.

(41) Donelson, James Edura. "Death and burial of President William McKinley", Scrapbook, undated. Buffalo & Erie County Public Library.

(42) Ross, p. 328

(43) Pan American Magazine, December, 1899.

Barbara A. Seals Nevergold, Ph.D.*

* Barbara A. Seals Nevergold, Ph.D. has a doctorate in Counseling Education from the University of Buffalo. Presently, she is the Director of Student Support Services of the University's Educational Opportunity Center.